Hypertrophy vs. Strength Periodization: Thoughts on Linear vs. DUP Programming

Recently, there's been some discussion about the differences in periodization for hypertrophy/muscle gain vs. strength and I just wanted to clear the air and give my take on it.

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"Strength and hypertrophy adaptations between low- versus high-load resistance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis"

(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319263841_Strength_and_hypertrophy_adaptations_between_low-_versus_high-load_resistance_training_A_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis)

Conclusions: Both low- and high-load training are beneficial for hypertrophy but high-load training is better for strength adaptations.

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"Effects of linear and daily undulating periodized resistance training programs on measures of muscle hypertrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis"

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5571788/)

Conclusion: Linear- and & DUP are both similar for muscle hypertrophy.

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These 2 papers compliment each other more than people think.

Here's why:

HYPERTROPHY is an anatomical adaptation whereby your muscles grow in size as a result of mechanical tension, metabolic stress and muscle damage; each having different contributions to the muscle building process. ("The Mechanisms of Muscle Hypertrophy and Their Application to Resistance Training" by Brad Schoenfeld)

STRENGTH is both an anatomical adaptation AND skill, which takes into account the practice of specific motor patterns. When it comes to the "performance" aspect, strength is expressed through lifting a heavy load, so by the way specificity, high load training obviously transfers over better to strength performance.

Whenever you plan or organize training principles (periodization), you first look at how the body behaves to certain stressors (exercise physiology). If rep range is fairly irrelevant in terms of building muscle, it's pretty clear that a DUP set up where you vary intensities/weight on the bar from day to day would offer the same benefits, if not more, than a linear set up where you commit to a certain rep range/intensity for multiple weeks at a time.

From here, it is safe to say:

1. Low and high-load training works for hypertrophy given the same effort - therefore DUP-based training is a valid strategy for hypertrophy.
   
   

2. Strength is a skill, which is built on high-load training, and expressed through a withdrawal of stress; which is termed a taper/peak (performance = fitness - fatigue).
   
   

3. Periodization for hypertrophy comes primarily in the form of volume progression and effort management. Pretty simple.
   
   

4. Periodization for strength however, volume, intensity, frequency, and fatigue all must be managed more closely in order to address the aspect of skill and motor learning development, as well as maximum strength specificity and expression

Without getting into TOO much detail. Let's keep it at that for now.

Cheers!

Periodization of Skill Acquisition & Performance

ONE Fighting Championship’s Elite Muay Thai Fighters: Rodtang (Left) and Jonathan Haggerty (Right)

Whether it be closed-skill sports like powerlifting and triathlon, or open-skilled sports like team sports and mixed martial arts (MMA), both physical attributes and technical proficiency in the sport-specific movements play a role in an athlete's success. Much of periodization has been focused around physical training, and how micro, meso, and macrocycles can be set up to aid in the improvement of strength, power and endurance. The periodization of skill acquisition and practice however, has yet to be examined to the same degree.

From my personal work on how to facilitate better technical improvements through periodization in powerlifting, to personal interests in MMA plus the back and forth debates on whether Conor McGregor's mixed martial arts skills will transfer over to the boxing ring; skill acquisition and performance is a big interest of mine.

Most of this series will be based on one of my recent readings: "Development of a Skill Acquisition Periodisation Framework for High-Performance Sport" by Damien Farrow and Sam Robertson (2016). For a more in-depth, fuller understanding, I highly suggest you read the article first.

In part 1 (this article), I will outline the main points made by Farrow & Robertson (2016) plus any of my own commentary and insight as it pertains to periodization. In part 2, I will directly quote the review article and expand on the points as it pertains to the sport of MMA and the implications it has on how MMA-specific skills are acquired, developed and expressed.

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what is periodization?

There is a common misconception about periodization, where people believe periodization consist of complex progressions and loading schemes used only by advanced coaches. While these complex protocols may be used, periodization in the bigger scheme of things, is simply the division of training periods and the principle of cyclical training where programming variables are manipulated. Variables like intensity, volume, frequency, rest and exercise selection among others are strategically controlled and varied in order to reduce the risk of injury and maximize sport performance for individual athletes or sports teams.

Periodization takes into consideration the level, training age and genetic predispositions of an athlete in order to avoid overtraining and allow them to peak for one or several competitions. In a periodized training plan, certain time-frames exists for the manipulation of programming variables, these time frames are termed macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle.

A macrocycle is considered the longest duration of the training cycle, usually several months in length or even a few years. For example, a quadrennial macrocycle describes a 4-year long program used to prepare an athlete or sport team for the Olympic games. A macrocycle is comprised of several mesocycles, which are a few months in length and can be defined as a prepatory, competition or transitional phase. Lastly, mesocycles are further divided into microcycleswhich deals with training on the weekly-basis.

Macrocycle (months to years)

Mesocycles (weeks to months)

Microcycles (training on the week to week basis)

Periodization serves as both a system where training is based on, and a tool to adapt future training protocols given the emerging information about the athlete or environment.

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the process of skill acquisition and practice

In the review article by Farrow & Robertson (2016), the two researchers examine skill through a holistic view, considering them both "perceptual-cognitive and technical motor skill collectively given the reciprocal nature of the relationship between perception and action". They state that the current way of analyzing skills practice is very outcome-based, rather than based on the understanding of the principles and processes of which instruction, learning and practice is based on. 

While there has been some research on skill periodization in the setting of rehabilitation, there has not been enough literature on skills periodization in relation to high-performance sports and how different practice methodologies can be altered throughout a program to facilitate better learning, retention and transfer. Should the number of golf swings in practice increase closer to a golf tournament? Should a quarterback practice his passes with more players or less players as they get closer to the in-season? Should MMA athletes increase their frequency of sparring as they inch closer to the fight? These are all questions Farrow & Robertson (2016) want coaches and trainers asking, and ultimately, find a (or multiple) solution(s) to.

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"SPORT" Framework

The main framework proposed to examine skills periodization is the "SPORT" framework/model. "SPORT" refers to the variables of [S]pecificity, [P]rogression, [O]verload, [R]eversability and [T]edium.

Right away we can draw parallels to the physical training realm, where specificity may refer to how specific a selected exercise is to the sports movement (perhaps using Bondarchuk's exercise classification system) and where overload might refer to the progression in volume load or intensity as a % of 1RM over the span of a training cycle.

Now, let's discuss each variable in the "SPORT" framework proposed to view skill training and periodization.

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Specificity

In skill training, specificity refers to how similar the movements and cognitive-behavioral demands of the skill being practiced are, compared to the skill being displayed and performed in competition. Farrow & Robertson (2016) use the term "representative learning design" or "representativeness" synonymously with specificity to refer to the "extent to which the practice prescribed reflects the behavioral demands of the task". Citing other literature, they also bring up the idea that training consists of several constraints that determine the degree of specificity for each movement or skill.

These constraints can be categorized into the following:

• Individual

• Environmental

• Task

Individual constraints refer to the physical attributes of an athlete such as strength, power and endurance. Environmental constraints refer to the temperature, atmosphere, and weather conditions of practice and competition, while task constraints include "the type of skill being performed, rules of the game and/or the equipment used". These constraints can then be manipulated to alter the course of how skills are acquired and practiced.

Much like in physical training where highly-specific training will have their merits, including some sort of variation can help widen the base on where specific-skills are built - not every practice session has to have the same environmental conditions or the same amount of players as in competition. For example, practicing in a 2 player vs. 2 player situation or a 3v2 game may improve some measures of skills that can then be successfully transferred over to 5v5 game play. Farrow & Robertson (2016) acknowledge that there is yet to be a definitive answer on how effective these practices are, but that understanding constraints give coaches and trainers a tool by which they can better evaluate practice and prescribe skill training based on degree of specificity.

Throughout the review article, the researchers use the example of a footballer performing passes in training. Below is the example of a chart that breaks down each constraint that might be present in the practice session and its relation to competition.  

"Three examples of skill constraints are provided; quantifying the prevalence of each allows for direct comparison of training with competition conditions. The difference between the two sets of conditions represents the level of training specificity." via Farrow & Robertson (2016).

This sort of systematic, quantitative breakdown of skill practice and training can be used in conjunction with a more qualitative coaches' eye to better understand skill practice specificity.

Relating to the topic specificity, I would like to bring up the utilization of ladder drills for foot speed and agility. Ladder drills have been a popular training modality for football teams, soccer teams and many other team sports, and for that exact reason, has also been on the receiving end of criticism that it does not transfer over to in-game agility and is a waste of time. In this case, the proponents of the ladder drill fail not to match the physical movements to competition settings, but the constraints of the skill themselves. In a closed environment, ladder drills do not account for task constraints such as changing direction to pass a ball vs. to receive a ball, the number of teammates to pass to, and ultimately, being reactionary to the presence of a skillful defender.

From ScienceForSport.com

All skills are composed of physical, and psycho-environmental (is that even a word?) factors. The athlete must possess the physical capacities to carry out the movement with intensity and sustainability, and they must do so under various conditions, environments and against different opponents. This has implications for how we approach closed-skill sports where the environmental and task constraints are static, compared to open-skilled sports that are reactive in nature. Can ladder drills serve as a warm up? Probably. Will ladder drills significantly improve a player's in-game agility? Probably not.

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Progression

In physical training, progression usually refers to the increase in training stress to induce positive adaptation in the human body, whether it be increased endurance training mileage, increased resistance training intensity or an increased ability to tolerate higher training loads. In skill training, progression can refer to the total volume or repetitions of a particular skill being practiced, increases in mental and cognitive exertion or a higher skill specificity in practice.

The review article also highlights the concept of deliberate practice, which is defined as a "learner's capacity to develop mechanisms as a consequence of extensive training that expand their processing capacities and in turn their development". An athlete or practitioner that performs deliberate practice is thought to "seek out training situations in which a set goal exceeds their current level of performance", in other words, someone who is constantly looking to improve - which requires conscious effort (Farrow & Robertson ,2016). This all gives way to another concept termed challenge point framework which refers to how challenging a skill is in comparison to the current skill level of an athlete.

Understanding how complex and how much technicality a skill is on the hypothetical beginner/novice <--> master/expert spectrum allows coaches and trainers to more accurately prescribe drills and practices. Simply speaking, a skill being practiced shouldn't be so easy that it doesn't challenge the athlete enough for them to improve, but at the same time, shouldn't be so difficult that the athlete can't grasp or progress adequately.  

Using the football pass example again, Farrow & Robertson (2016) illustrate an example of a quantifiable progression a footballer can use to improve their passing ability on the mesocyclical level (week to week).

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overload

Consisting of one half of the principle of progressive overload, overload is measured by decreases or increases in internal training load (rate of perceived exertion (RPE), heart rate response) and external training load (distance covered, poundages lifted). Overload can also be thought of as training above baseline to induce adaptations that allow athletes to progress in their performance - the two concepts are intertwined and often synonymous. When it comes to skill training, Farrow & Robertson (2016) refer to the the concept of load as the cognitive effort in demand, or the volume of skills and repetition practiced like discussed in the previous section. Specifically, cognitive effort is defined as "the mental work involved in making decisions that underscore movement". Time stress, pressure from the opposing players and environment, and precise decision making all play a role in how much cognitive effort is demanded of an athlete during any given practice.

When it comes to cognitive effort, Farrow & Robertson (2016) highlight the effect of contextual interference, which shows that high cognitive effort demanding practice results in a decrease in practice performance but improves the retention of the practice skill, and ultimately the transfer to competition. The opposite is also true where practice that doesn't require a sufficient amount of cognitive effort improves practice performance (most likely due to lower complexity or a poorly prescribed practice based on the challenge point framework) but does not provide retention and transfer effects. In order to better influence skill retention and transfer, the amount of cognitive effort (load) must be altered to benefit the athlete. Specifically, the researchers point to the blocked vs. mixed approach. Here is an example:

Blocked Approach

• 10 field goals up close

• 10 field goals from a moderate distance

• 10 field goals far away

Mixed Approach

• 2 field goals up close

• 7 field goals from a moderate distance

• 4 field goals up close again

• 1 field goal far away

• etc...

The mixed approach has shown to be more beneficial for skill retention and transfer to competition. The idea is to introduce some sort of randomness (or whatever strategy the coach sees fit) and variation to keep cognitive efforts high and to break up monotonous repetitions. Just as an athlete acclimatizes to the conditions/environment, change it. This leads to "inconsistent practice performance but superior learning of the skill" as Farrow & Robertson (2016) state. My hypothesis is that when the athletes aren't allowed to become too comfortable with the conditions and constraints of the practice, they're forced to recall certain motor patterns, shot timing, judgement of distance, etc... more frequently, leading to more adaptability and better retention. Overloading skill practice then, might mean increasing the cognitive effort demands of a practice and/or through a more difficult or random distribution of skill practice as the training cycle progresses.

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Reversibility

Reversibility refers to the decrease in skill performance when practice has been reduced in frequency or withdrawn completely - very similar to the idea of residual effects of physical detraining. The concept of reversibility is important as it informs coaches and trainers which skills may or may not be retained heading into a competition or from one training session into the next. Skill reversibility can be tested using two methods - the retention test and the transfer test.

The Retention Test involves performing the skill after a period of no practice and determines the degree to which the particular skill is loss - which could be reaction time based or biomechnically based.

The Transfer Test is simply a direct measurement of whether the skill practiced has improved and successfully transferred over to real-life competition. 

Factors that affect the results of these tests include the method of tapering, and how fast the practice sessions were withdrawn before the date of testing.

While it wasn't touched on in great detail, Farrow & Robertson (2016) do take the time to talk about memory consolidation and how important sleep and recovery would be for retaining the skills practiced during training.

To add onto this section, I wonder if reversibility in skill training behaves like residual effects in the physical training world. I would guess that skills that have been developed for a longer period of time (let's say for 10 years) decay more slowly than skills that have been developed recently (1-2 years for example) as those skills might be more susceptible to the reversibility effect. Many anecdotes point towards this since many highly skilled practitioners from various types of sports are able to retain their skills well-beyond old age and/or cessation of training. I have not looked into the research in this area though.

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Tedium

Lastly, tedium refers to the state of "being bored due to monotony" as Farrow & Robertson (2016) state. Also related to specificity, the concept of tedium gives way to perhaps the underlying question that periodization is based off of - how much variation is needed?

As the expert in periodization and training management John Kiely says, "if [training variation] and adaptive energy is too widely distributed, gains may be excessively diluted... but if repetitive application of a unidimensional training stress [is applied], the athlete will be exposed to the negative effects of unremitting monotony". Not only is a lack of variation correlated with an increased incidence of overtraining syndromes and poor physical performance, it can also affect the psychological profile of an athlete.

A bored athlete is an unmotivated athlete - an unmotivated athlete is less likely to seek deliberate, challenging practice and therefore will not improve.

In addition to having a strategically written training plan that takes into account all the variables above such as specificity, training constraints and progressive overload, Farrow & Robertson (2016) note that the athlete should be provided some sort of control over their practice sessions as this has shown to enhance skill acquisition. Coaches should work with athletes, not on them - cause after all, coaching is both a science and an art. The value of interpersonal communication, coach-athlete chemistry, and enjoyment should be not be overlooked in the training process.

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Putting it together - possible periodization techniques

• Use a blocked approach (low cognitive effort) early on in the season to drill a high amount of reps, progress to a mixed approach to improve retention and transfer
  

• Avoid programming a hard effort physical training workout and a skill training session that demands high cognitive effort on the same day (prolonged periods of high cognitive effort can lead to a decrease in skill practice performance)
  

• Further away from competition - lower the frequency of highly representative skills and include a larger variety (less constraints matching the demands of competition)
  

• Closer to a competition - increase the frequency of highly-specific skills and match the constraints and cognitive-behavioral demands of the sport
  

• Skills that are less susceptible to reversibility should be practiced less often to make time to address weaknesses or other skills that need to be improved on
  

• Some possible deload techniques : decrease skill complexity to reduce cognitive effort, decrease frequency of skill practice, decrease total weekly volume of skill practice,
  

• Allow athletes to dictate skill training session (to a degree) further away from competition. Keep it strict closer to competition.

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Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

Tapering & Peaking: How To Design A Taper and Peak For Sports Performance [Part 2 of Peaking Series]

Read Part 1 Here

In order to see results and reap in the adaptations from exercise and training, an athlete or trainee must push their bodies past baseline, past their current limits. To maximize these gains, an athlete must also properly recover from training sessions so they can continue to train in a safe and efficient manner. Aside from adequate sleep, proper nutrition and nutrient intakes, one way athletes recover is by implementing periods of restoration, often called a deload. A deload is when the training stress is reduced in order for the athlete to realize their adaptations and to give their mind and body a well-deserved rest. A similar protocol, called a taper or peak, is when training stressed is acutely withdrawn to improve an athlete's performance measures beyond baseline, usually to prepare for an important sporting event or competition.

Part 2 will cover the details of a proper taper/peaking protocol. The manipulation of training variables will be discussed as well as the performance improvements that are expected from a taper.

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Tapering & Peaking

Tapering and peaking for a competition revolves around the concepts of functional-overreaching and supercompensation. From part 1, we learned that acute fatigue from training can accumulate over weeks and months to cause chronic fatigue. Chronic fatigue can be be categorized into non-functional (develops into overtraining syndrome) and functional.

Functional-overreaching, despite it's negative effects on performance can result in what's known as supercompensation. Supercompensation, a slight enhancement of performance (>100%), is achieved through proper recovery after a subsequent period of hard training, termed planned overreaching, taper, or peaking. For the sake of this article, I'll be using the terms taper and peak synonymously.

Taken off Wikipedia.

A taper usually involves a structured reduction in training load to remove acute and fatigue in order to potentiate increases in physiological and psychological performance. I touched on this subject in my periodization series, where I discussed the fitness-fatigue model of performance, which suggests that fitness and fatigue are inversely related. When we introduce a training stress, fitness adaptations and the accumulation of fatigue occur simultaneously and it is not until the training stressor is reduced, where we see an improvement in performance. The fitness-fatigue model is used in conjunction with Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome and the Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation model to explain training. I highly recommend you read my periodization series to better understand the following sections.

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Who Should Taper? and Why?

The concept of tapering was created in order for athletes to produce their best performance on a given competition date. This means the taper or peak will be the most suitable for athletes involved in sports that are climatic in nature. Think of a huge MMA fight or the Olympic 100m sprint. Events that boil down to one time and date where the athlete needs to perform at their absolute best. These athletes will utilize the most aggressive tapering methods, compared to team sports or sports that consist of longer in-seasons where athletes are required to maintain a relatively high performance throughout weeks or months.

Non-climatic sports like tennis, basketball, and many team sports that have a 4-5 month game season will not depend on tapering/peaking methods until the most important games and matches - tournaments, playoffs and championships.

However, both type of sports use the same principle of training residuals to guide their tapering methods. 

Taken from Nick Winkleman

Training residuals refer to the rate of detraining for each physical attribute, such as maximal strength, maximal power, endurance, etc. This is an important concept to understand as there must be a fine balance between the how much a stressor should be withdrawn (and for how long) and what qualities must be at peak condition come competition day.

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manipulating Training variables

Since frequency, intensity and volume mediate training load and training stress, manipulation of any these variables can cause a reduction in training load, the main goal of a taper. However, decreases in the wrong variable can hinder performance.

Frequency

In a study by Mjukia et al (2012), elite middle-distance runners saw improvements in their performance when their frequency of training was maintained during a taper, compared to a 30% reduction in training frequency which resulted in no change in performance. The possible benefits of maintaining frequency can be credited to the fact that higher frequency training allows for a more strategic distribution of volume load, and creates an environment where technical skill can be practiced more frequently leading up to a competition. Due to the limitations and lack of studies on the manipulation of frequency for tapering, these recommendations seem to hold true for both aerobic and anaerobic sports. Example: take an Olympic Weightlifter who snatches and clean & jerks 4 times a week. It would not make sense to reduce competition lift frequency as the competition nears as maintaining 4 times a week practice is crucial for skill practice and visualization.

Intensity

When it comes to intensity, a reduction during a taper has shown to lead to decreases in both aerobic and anaerobic performance measures. In several studies, intensity reductions ranging from 30 to 60% decreased aerobic and anaerobic performance by 20 to 30% as well as decrements in VO2max values. One basic explanation for this is that reducing intensity violates the rule of specificity in periodized training. Movement patterns and intensities should closely mimic the demands of competition as an athlete gets closer to competition. Reducing the weight on the bar for a powerlifter or straying too far away from race-pace for a runner does not adequately prepare them for competition. There may be situations where an intensity reduction is required (perhaps a mis-timed overreaching phase, or the athlete is too fatigue and sore to perform at the given intensity with quality movement), in these cases, keep intensity reductions on the low end (<30%).

In contrast, a maintenance or small increase in training intensity has been shown to be beneficial for performance. In power athletes, leg press 1RM, squat jump as well as track and field performance all increased when intensity of training was maintained up to the testing day or performance date. Elite rugby players also showed similar improvements in their jumping performance and their ability to generate force when intensity was slightly increased during a taper. 

Since the literature recommends that frequency and intensity be maintained or slightly increased during a taper, the most practical solution then is to reduce training load is to reduce training volume.
 

Volume

In endurance training, reducing volume can be achieved by reducing the total time spent in the target heart rate or power output zone, or reducing the total distance covered during training. Reducing the time-in-zone volume is more accurate compared to reducing total distance as it considers the intensity of which training is carried out.

In resistance training, reducing volume during a taper is achieved via reducing the number of reps or sets performed at any given intensity. Murach & Bagley (2015) state that for both endurance and power sports, reductions in training volumes ranging from 30% to 70% over the span of 2 or 3 weeks improves sport performance.

I know what you're thinking... "30% to 70%!? that's a huge range, how is that practical?"
 

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So... How much & how fast?

The magnitude and duration of the volume reduction is dependent on several factors:

• The experience of the athlete (recreational vs. sub-elite vs. elite)

• Length of the their training cycle

• Initial training volume load

• Previous experiences with tapering and peaking

• Introduction of new recovery modalities during the taper or peak

It's suggested that if several weeks of moderate training is performed, a more conservative reduction in volume (30-50%) over the span of 7 to 10 days should be carried out. For hard training cycles that last several months, anywhere from 60-90% reductions in volume should be carried out over 10-28 days. The higher degree of accumulated fatigue, the larger reduction of training volume is needed to see performance gains at the end of the taper. This is where the readiness monitor plays a role in conjunction with monitoring training loads and intensity. Performance is just as much how the athlete feels the week of the competition, as it is how they're supposed to feel on paper.

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Types of tapers

Taking into account the magnitude and duration of the taper, there are 3 tapering formats that have been reviewed in the literature.

Step taper is a complete and immediate decrease in training volume on the first day of the taper and is maintained throughout the whole duration.

Linear taper is defined as a progressive decrease in volume over the span of the taper duration, often seen in fixed increments. For example, decreasing volume by 5% or 10% every training session until the planned % reduction is reached.

Exponential taper involves reducing volume in a nonlinear fashion and can be defined as having a fast or slow decay rate. A fast decay rate for example, may mean reducing training volume by half every 2 days, while a slow decay rate may mean reducing training volume by half every 5 days. The literature proposes that for tapers that are short in duration, volume decreases should come by the way of step tapering or fast decay times, while athletes and coaches that possess more time to taper should experiment with more progressive reductions in volume with slow to moderate decay times.

Taken from Runsmartonline.com

Taken from Fellrnr.com

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Tapering Benefits

How much of an improvement in performance can we expect from tapering volume and/or other training variables?

Obviously, this depends on the sport and the physical attributes related to the sporting event.

Reductions in training volume show benefits across the board for many different athletic events and populations. Below is a graph taken from Murach & Bagley (2015), outlining the performance benefits as it pertains to swimming, biking, running, rowing and throwing events.

Indirect Performance Measures

Tapering results in increased recovery and reduced stress, which can also facilitate more positive mood states and reducing performance anxiety, rate of perceived exertion and increased vigor and confidence. For all athletes, improvements in hormonal, psychological and sleep-related factors also contribute to increasing performance. 

Specifically for endurance and mixed-type athletes, glycogen storage plays a big role in performance. With a taper and reduction in training volume, liver and muscle glycogen stores are able to replenish to their maximum levels with an accompanying decrease in muscular fatigue. Contrastingly, glycolytic and aerobic enzymes seem to be less affected by tapering. Increases in muscular power has also been seen in endurance athletes. During a taper, the type II muscle fibers are able to recovery and hypertrophy at a faster rate than type I fibers, and has thought to be the main contributor of muscular power increases.

For strength and power athletes, the performance increases can be attributed to a decrease in muscular fatigue. When volume is decreased, markers of muscle damage also progressively decrease, resulting in lower instances of muscle soreness. 

For mixed athletes, the specific mechanisms are unclear and depend on the nature of the sport, but the taper benefits most likely come from a mixture of both endurance and power-based qualities. An analysis of the sport, and the athlete's position should be taken into account when planning a taper.
 

Direct Performance Increases

Endurance athletes can expect a 1-9% increase in VO2max, up to an 8% increase in running economy and up to a 15% increase in red blood cell count. Regardless of the distance of the event, it is reasonable to suggest that endurance athletes will see a direct 2-3% improvement in their sporting performance. 

In strength and power athletes, 2-3% increases in bench press and squat strength have been seen, as well as up to 20% increase in neuromuscular function and strength (the higher end being seen in less experienced athletes).

That about wraps about this series. I highly recommend reading my 5-part periodization article series, which you can find below.

References

Bosquet, Laurent, Jonathan Montpetit, Denis Arvisais, and I??igo Mujika. "Effects of Tapering on Performance." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 39, no. 8 (2007): 1358-365.

Lacey, James De, Matt Brughelli, Michael Mcguigan, Keir Hansen, Pierre Samozino, and Jean-Benoit Morin. "The Effects of Tapering on Power-Force-Velocity Profiling and Jump Performance in Professional Rugby League Players." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28, no. 12 (2014): 3567-570.

Mujika, I., A. Goya, E. Ruiz, A. Grijalba, J. Santisteban, and S. Padilla. "Physiological and Performance Responses to a 6-Day Taper in Middle-Distance Runners: Influence of Training Frequency." International Journal of Sports Medicine Int J Sports Med 23, no. 5 (2002): 367-73.

Murach, Kevin, and James Bagley. "Less Is More: The Physiological Basis for Tapering in Endurance, Strength, and Power Athletes." Sports 3, no. 3 (2015): 209-18.

Trinity, Joel D., Matthew D. Pahnke, Edwin C. Reese, and Edward F. Coyle. "Maximal Mechanical Power during a Taper in Elite Swimmers." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 38, no. 9 (2006): 1643-649.

Wilson, Jacob M., and Gabriel J. Wilson. "A Practical Approach to the Taper." Strength and Conditioning Journal 30, no. 2 (2008): 10-17.

Zaras, Nikolaos D., Angeliki-Nikoletta E. Stasinaki, Argyro A. Krase, Spyridon K. Methenitis, Giorgos P. Karampatsos, Giorgos V. Georgiadis, Konstantinos M. Spengos, and Gerasimos D. Terzis. "Effects of Tapering With Light vs. Heavy Loads on Track and Field Throwing Performance." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28, no. 12 (2014): 3484-495.

Overreaching and Overtraining [Part 1 of Peaking Series]

Picture Credit: www.onnit.com

SKIP TO PART 2 HERE

In order to see results and reap in the adaptations from exercise and training, an athlete or trainee must push their bodies past baseline, past their current limits. To maximize these gains, an athlete must also properly recover from training sessions so they can continue to train in a safe and efficient manner. Aside from adequate sleep, proper nutrition and nutrient intakes, one way athletes recover is by implementing periods of restoration, often called a deload. A deload is when the training stress is reduced in order for the athlete to realize their adaptations and to give their mind and body a well-deserved rest. A similar protocol, called a taper or peak, is when training stressed is acutely withdrawn to improve an athlete's performance measures beyond baseline, usually to prepare for an important sporting event or competition.

Before we dive into the specifics of a deloading or tapering protocol, we must better understand why they're needed in the first place. Part 1 will go over the concept of overreaching, overtraining, and what type of stressors and symptoms an athlete might experience as a result of hard training.

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Not all fatigue is made equal

Taken from Meeusen et al. (2013)

Acute fatigue is characterized by a short term disruption of homeostasis from training, often resulting in slight improvements in performance. However, if acute fatigue beings to accumulate from increasing training intensity or volume without adequate recovery, or without periods of rest, chronic fatigue can occur.

Chronic fatigue can be divided into 2 categories: overreaching and overtraining, where overreaching can be referred to as functional, or non-functional. 

Functional overreaching can be defined as a temporary decrease in performance lasting no more than a few days to weeks, while non-functional overreaching is defined by a decrease or no change in performance over weeks to months. If overreaching symptoms persist for prolong periods and performance begins to drop significantly, it is defined as overtraining, sometimes called overtraining syndrome.

I'm sure you've heard of the saying "there is no such thing as overtraining, only under recovery". While this is technically true, there are training volumes and intensities that an athlete simply can't adequately recover from without being in a drug-induced supra-physiological state. But unless you're an elite level Olympic athlete pushing the boundaries and closing in on a world record, or a beginner trainee attempting to perform an advanced training program, it's not likely you'll find yourself in that situation. Instead, overtraining syndrome develops when recovery is neglected whether it be due to laziness, or compromised due to financial situations, work schedules and unplanned life events. 

Training and adaptation is a multi-factorial equation, taking into account the inputs (types of movement, intensity, volume, frequency), outputs (recovery, fatigue management, sleep, nutrition) and everything in between (training history, individual response to exercise, genetics).

Overtraining is very real and can occur when the balance between training and recovery is not met.

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Types of Overtraining

Resistance-training dominant sports and endurance-training dominant sports have their own respective forms of overtraining. Sympathetic overtraining, often seen in team, strength and power sports, is characterized and diagnosed by an irregular increase in resting heart rates, cortisol concentrations, ECG abnormalities and a decrease in testosterone.

Parasympathetic overtraining often seen in endurance sports is characterized by a compromise of the neuroendocrine system, resulting in reduced responsiveness to stressors and increased sleeping times and increased incidences of depressive symptoms.

Keep in mind it's not the particular sport that causes a certain form of overtraining, rather, the type, volume and intensities of which training is carried in each type of sport. Despite these concrete definitions, overtraining is not black and white. Many sports are mixed in nature (team sports for example), having both resistance and endurance demands, so symptoms are known to overlap, making diagnosis more difficult.
 

Other Causes Of Overtraining

Overtraining has been hypothesized to come from prolonged periods of high-intensity and high-volume training. However, overtraining can also manifests from a set of complex factors outside of training and recovery. Existing disease or illness, psychological stress, school or work-related demands, as well as expectations from coaches, friends and teammates all play a role in the development of overtraining. While it is a responsibility for coaches to carefully monitor training loads and intensity; one must not forget about the complex biosystem of a human and the impact psychological stress can have on physical performance. Take a holistic approach when preventing and diagnosing overtraining to avoid prolonged periods of stagnation or poor performance.

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Monitoring Overtraining

The best way to monitor and prevent overtraining is to plan ahead. Applying proper periodization principles, allowing athletes to progress and reach peak performance without inducing overtraining syndrome. But things almost never go as planned, so various quantitative and qualitative  assessments should be used in conjunction with a periodized plan to monitor stress and exertion throughout any training program.

Below is a checklist used to diagnose overtraining syndrome by Meeusen et al (2013) with The European College of Sport Science and the American College of Sports Medicine.

Taken from Meeusen et al. (2013)

The checklist is complex and comprehensive, and most monitoring methods like disease diagnosis and blood work are outside the realm of practicing trainers and coaches. At the elite level of sports, sports scientists have access to advanced-technology, but for the majority of us, we need a more simple way to monitor our athletes.

For my athletes, I created a readiness monitor that gives me consistent and quantifiable insight on my athlete's recovery.

Even though the survey is marked on a 1-5 scale, the readiness monitor itself is very qualitative and subjective in nature. This readiness monitor's benefit is 2-fold:

1. It helps me gain a rough understanding of how my athlete is recovering and what he or she is experiencing throughout my training program.
   

2. It gives them an opportunity to keep a health/recovery diary, making them more aware of their recovery and their habits. Hopefully positively impacting their attention to recovery.

Part 2 will cover the difference between a deload and a taper, as well as specific tapering protocols to peak for various sports and competitions. Read Part 2 Here.

The Building Blocks of Powerlifting Performance

A few of the powerlifters I coach have just finished competing this month at BCPA Provincials and many are entering their so-called "off-season", so I thought I would take this time to talk about base building in powerlifting. First off, what is base building? It's a term I like to use to describe the rudimentary steps a beginner or intermediate strength athlete has to take in order to become successful 1, 3, or even 10 years down the road. Think of it as a pyramid, widening the base to support a much higher peak. It can also be applicable for lifters that may have not had the best competition cycle and need to go back to the drawing board to improve their training.

So in practice, what does it mean to build or widen your base?

It means putting conscious effort into investing in proper technique acquisition and developing the right habits and mindset for you to excel in your athletic career. In my mind, there are 3 things that must be addressed to create an environment where you reap in the most benefits from your training. Technical mastery, habits and consistency, and mindset.

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Technical Mastery In Powerlifting

“Practice does not make perfect. Only perfect practice makes perfect.”

— Vince Lombardi

In a closed-skill sport like powerlifting that does not depend on anyone else except for yourself and the bar, technical perfection is more in-reach than many other sports. Unfortunately, the ego often gets in the way, causing some people to lift with brutally poor form until they get injured or hit a plateau. If injury or a high risk of plateauing doesn't scare you off, I don't know what will!

I used to be an advocate of performing the competition lifts (Squat, Pause Bench Press, Deadlift) once a week if you were a beginner. My train of thought was, save the higher frequency competition lifts for when you become stronger and enter your intermediate/advanced stages. Performing the competition lifts 1x a week was a common recommendation, but it seemed to always come from experienced, drug-enhanced lifters, who were able to fit in much more training volume within any given session and recover much faster than natural athletes.

Fast forward to today, I'm a big believer that training the competition lifts more frequently makes more sense because it is in line with the principle of specificity, and can be done when fatigue is managed.

Competition lift frequency - more is better

Exposing a beginner to the competition lifts 1x a week is just not enough practice. With my athletes, I prescribe a minimum 2x a week squatting, 2x a week benching and 1x a week deadlifting with an additional hip hinge movement on another day - preferably another barbell deadlift variation like a Romanian deadlift. While this may seem overwhelming for a beginner, it can be done if intensity and effort is controlled.

The first session will be focused on high effort work, where sets are in the 8-9 RPE range. The second competition lift session must be dialed back to a 5-7 RPE range depending on the experience level of the athlete. Any of the programming variables (sets, reps, intensity) can be rearranged, but the theme is to reduce the effort - essentially making it an "easy" day.

A higher frequency of exposure and performing more reps per week will benefit motor learning.

Technical improvements can be made in the absence of high intensity and effort, simply exposing the athlete to the competition lifts 1 more time a week, can do wonders. Squatting, benching and deadlifting once a week can still be beneficial for general strength training. However, if you're an aspiring powerlifter, consider increasing the frequency for faster learning.

Even intermediate or more experienced lifters aren't necessarily exempt from base building. If you're struggling to make technical improvements, read this write up I did on improving technique and the idea of using a technical breakdown threshold (TBT), which is more geared towards experienced lifters.

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Consistency

“First we make our habits, and then our habits make us.”

— John Dryden

You'll often hear adherence and consistency is everything. The most complex training programs will yield no results if you're not consistent with your training. Showing up to training sessions, completing training within a certain time frame, maintaining focus, good form and technique throughout the session, consistently consuming enough protein and calories.

In order to build successful lifting habits, you must create an environment where you can be consistent.

Consistency in regards to training frequency is one thing I want to talk about in particular. When deciding a training frequency (3 lifting sessions a week vs. 4x, 5x..), be conservative and pick the lowest one you're 100% sure you can maintain for the training cycle.

If you're on the edge about whether you should train 4x a week or 5x a week, pick 4x a week. Programs are designed to spread out training volume given a set training frequency. If you know your work schedule or other life commitments might get in the way of your training, missing a training session every week or other week can add up. You would be essentially missing a chunk of training load that could have been better distributed had you picked a training frequency of 4x a week. While a coach can modify training volume on the week-to-week basis, not all lifters have this luxury or access to a competent coach.

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Mindset & persistence

What brings programming variables, technical mastery and consistency together? Mindset and persistence. 

Elite-level strength acquisition takes a long time.
There will likely be someone stronger than you.
Training is not life.
Injuries are inevitable. 

That's I would tell myself 3-4 years ago If I could time-travel. As an ex-powerlifting fanatic, I completely understand what it feels like to want to get as strong as possible in the shortest time frame possible, thinking "squat bench deadlift or die".

Elite level strength takes years and years to develop naturally (even when enhanced, actually). If you have good limb and spatial awareness or previous experience with weight training, you might be able to pick up the technique fairly fast. But being able to induce the physiological changes to your nervous system and muscles to tackle 2, 3, 4x of your bodyweight on your back or in your hands, takes time and patience. The earlier you come to terms with that, the better off you'll be when it comes to making decisions about jumping on a high-frequency program when you're not ready, or trying to peak and go heavy too often in your beginner and intermediate stages.

Mental persistence also plays a big role in athletic performance and success. Great athletes are able to face adversity, come back from injury, destroy their egos and doubts in order break through plateaus and have excellent performances. Try to see the positives in each situation, but be self-aware enough to know when you're overreaching when you shouldn't be. 

Coming Back From Injury

The best tip I can give you is regarding injury, specifically coming back from an injury.

Many lifters feel the need to play "catch-up" after coming off an injury, doing more than they can handle and putting themselves in a downward spiral. I'm not an advocate of training through injuries, it does not develop mental strength nor improve your likelihood of strength success in the future. The best course of action is to wait for the pain to subside, identify how the injury came to be (accumulation of volume - overuse?, poor technique?, freak accident?), address the weakness, and allow several weeks of training before returning back to pre-injury training volumes and intensities.

This is what I like to call athletic maturity. Being able to keep your eyes on the prize, on the long term goal, and realize every injury is an opportunity to fix a missing link, or improve a weakness. 

Just like strength itself, mental strength and persistence can have an innate or "natural" component, but of course can also be developed through repetition and hard work. 

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My Thoughts on the FMS (Functional Movement Screen)

FMS Certification For Trainers & Coaches: Good Idea? Or Stay Away?

I recently had someone ask me whether getting the FMS certification was worth it. Like many questions, I answered... "it depends".

For those who don't know, the FMS (functional movement screen) is a fitness assessment created to look for "movement dysfunction". The FMS can be a good tool for new personal trainer and coaches to use as an initial assessment and as practice as they become more familiar with human movement. But becoming dependent on an arbitrary set of exercises to understand movement dysfunction and predict injury risk is something many trainers and coaches should avoid as they progress through their career.

Using pre-determined movements and quantifying movement quality is the complete opposite of conscious coaching and dismisses the idea of movement variability.

Conscious coaching requires adaptability and interaction.

Stop staring at your piece of paper; start watching your athletes and patients move. Figure out which movements are required in their sport or daily life because the definition of "functional" movement varies from sport to sport and one environment to the next. Talk to your athlete or patient about their confidence (or uncertainty) about particular body positions or movements. Design well-structured training programs that control for load, fatigue management, and injury reduction. Since your athletes and patients will most likely come from many different backgrounds, conscious coaching and assessment will do heaps more than some standardized test will.

This is not to say I'm against writing anything down. Notes should be taken when necessary.

Instead of writing: "Scored a 2 on the lunge test", a conscious coach will watch their athlete and note: "knee valgus during fast change of direction when running - check hip and leg complex and assess previous injury history and running/agility technique."

Some argue that the fact that FMS can be standardized to help sports teams. Several of studies have come out showing that their findings do not support the "predictive validity of the FMS" and that the FMS does "not relate to any aspect of athletic performance", so using an invalid assessment is stubborn and a waste of precious time, no matter how consistent it is. Can the FMS be useful? Of course. But consider the picture blow:

The FMS is 8% better than a coin toss. Let that sink in.

Like I said earlier, the FMS can be useful for new trainers and coaches. However, the end goal should be to acquire enough knowledge on human movement, motor learning, movement variability and training load to be able to consciously watch our athletes and clients. The FMS is not a game-changer and I would advise you to consider whether or not getting certified will help you towards your goals given your current experience level.

Be adaptable.

The Current State Of The Fitness And Training Industry

Over the past few years, social media and online interactions have been one of the main drivers in the fitness, personal training and coaching industry. The general population now have access to the most knowledgeable coaches, the best training advice and the most informative articles with just a click of a button. Trainers and coaches from all around the world also get to discuss the latest training and dieting protocols and sell their services to others. 

However, with any good thing, come the negatives. Call-out culture, trolling, underqualified trainers and coaches, lies and accusations about other trainers, over-saturation of information, I'm sure we've seen it some of these to an extent. With that said, is this new age of fitness and personal training really a good thing.

This article is a reflection of the current state of the fitness industry and my opinion on the most commonly debated topics. 

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Facebook

I've only been in the game for 5 years, but I'm lucky to be connected with the most brilliant minds in the fitness, nutrition and strength & conditioning realm. Our industry is special in that training methods, diets, and expert opinions can all be criticized and scrutinized on an open platform, Facebook, without much anonymity. Despite the stereotype that Facebook can't be used for serious and civil conversations about any complex topic, it's surprising that trainers and coaches around the world can participate in scientific discourse about all things related to human fitness. Anything you say or post will be read by your peers and can be criticized and improved on; so long that you're connected to the right people and not committing cases of confirmation bias on the daily basis (avoiding criticism or change, always seeking out people and information who agree with you).

I also remember when this was not the case. I remember when Facebook was just a platform to share your fitness routines and update your friends on your latest physique or strength progress. Over the years Facebook has become a vehicle for distributing truthful, evidence-backed fitness and nutrition advice. At the same time, a tool for trainers and coaches to market and sell their services and information. I don't understand fully how this came to be, but I have a few theories:

Fitness is a personal pursuit, but has a big social impact.

Improving health, fitness and looking great naked is a personal pursuit. YOU have to put in the time in and YOU have to put in the hard work to benefit YOURSELF. However, humans are social creatures. Some post pictures of themselves to motivate others, some workout to show off their bodies, some want validation and approval from others. Whatever the intentions are, sharing your fitness journey on Facebook has a huge impact on your circle of friends on Facebook. This is akin to foodies posting pictures of great local meals or car enthusiasts showing off their newest car mod; there's something positive and gratifying about being able to share your own experiences with others.

Social media is the perfect platform for marketing personal training services and, but can be very dangerous.

Social media can also be a platform for marketing personal training services and diet plans. Often paired with paragraphs about why and how your methods are scientifically proven to be effective or the best. I do this, many other trainers and coaches I know do this. It's an effective way to reach an audience you've already built through friendships in high schools or a way to acquire clientele through the acquaintances you've crossed paths with from work or weekend-hobbies. 

Marketing on social media can also be very dangerous. It's easy to subscribe to too many different trainers with different view points, or at worse, subscribe to someone who teaches ineffective training methods and gives out dangerous nutrition advice. This results in an over-saturation of information for the general trainee and trainer, leading to something many people call "paralysis by analysis": over-thinking fitness and nutrition to the point where the trainee or trainer fails to stick with the basics or is confused to what steps to take to reach a goal.

Related to this topic: I've written about fitness and nutrition pyramids, and why they're so useful for trainees and trainers. Sticking to the basics and prioritizing certain training and dieting principles is the best way to avoid "paralysis by analysis".

Peer-reviewed scientific papers do not have the same reach and impact as a evidence-based coach that can effectively communicate to the masses.

Scientific journals and papers are made for scientists and researchers to communicate with each other, using statistics and logic to come to a consensus about a particular topic. The use of complex scientific terms is crucial for maintaining consistency in the field, but might not be the best for communicating with the masses on Facebook. Using scientific jargon and anatomical terms may be valid, but the average trainee or local personal trainer that don't possess the same vocabulary will be lost in the forest.

Share a breakthrough scientific article on carbohydrates and weight loss. You might get 100 views.

Read a breakthrough scientific article on carbohydrates and weight loss, dissecting the main points and communicating those points using both scientific and lay-man terms so the masses can understand and put to practice? Watch your view count go through the roof and your social impact increase. 

This is what is so great about podcasts like Danny Lennon's Sigma Nutrition Podcast and research reviews like Alan Aragon's Research Review. They speak with respected researchers in the field and are able to package information in a way most people can understand.

This is not to say peer-reviewed scientific papers and research studies are not useful, far from it. Rather, we should be mindful of the way we communicate with our audience. Using the right terminology or using communication techniques like analogies can help, and are very important.

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Call-Out Culture

Also related to Facebook and social media, I wanted to talk about "call-out culture" in the context of the fitness and nutrition world. This topic came to my mind after a thoughtful coach raised a question on Facebook on what the term "evidence-based" really means in the fitness industry and where to draw the line to divide people who are truly evidence-based away from those people who aren't.

Some trainers, researchers and coaches pride themselves for calling out bullshit they see in the industry, whether it be training methods that aren't scientifically backed or nutrition protocols that are considered fad diets. Some go as far as publicly shaming them on a Facebook status or write a whole article about why someone is wrong.

While I believe trainers who give out shady and dangerous advice should be called out, we have to examine their intentions:

A trainer who is purposely promoting stupid training methods and useless supplements for financial and egotistical gain at the expense of their follower's health and money, is an asshole and should be called out.

A trainer who has good-intentions but has mistakenly spread false information either from a lack of education or lack of carefulness, should not be bashed.

Much of the false information and pseudoscience I see being spread is by the latter group of trainers (I could be wrong...)

The best way to go about this problem is not to fight negativity with negativity, rather smothering them with positivity and giving them a chance to improve their critical thinking skills by providing them with sources (articles, podcasts, videos) that publish good information. Approach the coach or trainer in a respectful manner and challenge their ideas by making sound, logically points as to why they've made a mistake or that their information is outdated. If they fail to acknowledge the new information, your options are to 1) leave them alone, 2) reconsider your own stance and how to approach these types of trainers in the future. Forcing your ideas, or belittling them in a threatening manner benefits no one.

Positivity is something I've picked up from being a business owner. Trainees and potential clients are much more likely to be drawn to you if you're passionate about making a positive change. Constantly shitting on other trainers and failing to provide any useful advice to your own audience is a recipe for failure, something I've learned personally. Spending more time on honing communication skills and having good intentions is the key to making a positive impact you want to see in your clients, athletes and audience.

I understand that a budding scientist that dedicates their life to a particular area of research would be more likely to take offence to a personal trainer online spewing out false information about his/her area of expertise. The said scientist would then be more inclined to participate in call-out culture. 

Call-out culture is bad for business and social impact, but may be practical for keeping misinformation and psuedoscience out of scientific discourse. It's all about context. 

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Stay in your own lane

"Stay in your own lane". The most dangerous, yet best advice any personal trainer and coach can receive.

Dangerous in the sense that this piece of advice can convince a trainer or coach to not branch out of what is currently comfortable to them; suppressing creativity and continuing education.

Best in the sense that trainers should not attempt to use practices and methods they are not fully comfortable with just to make a quick buck or play a know-it-all guru.

I do believe trainers and coaches should go out of their way to learn about topics they're not comfortable or educated on. Well-roundness and adaptability is what every professional should strive for. Learning about areas outside your scope of practice can provide perspective and benefits that "staying in your own lane" cannot achieve. I became a much better strength coach after dabbling in the world of pure endurance training, which lead me to researching about concurrent training theories and methodologies; ultimately improving my program writing abilities. This is just my personal example. I've seen some physiotherapists branch out into the strength training world, integrating strength training principles into their rehabilitation system to better understand and change the lives of their clients. Some have even completely overhauled how they look at the world of physiotherapist after understanding strength training, the adaptability of the human body, and how everything is interconnected. 

A more common example would be trainers studying for a nutrition diploma or certificate to better understand how to adjust their clients' diet and dietary habits in order to fully reap in the benefits of fitness training.

So what's wrong with branching out? Why shouldn't trainers and coaches stay in their own lane?

The biggest problem is the self-inflated confidence of trainers and coaches that believe they are experts in areas they have barely scratched the surface of. Obviously this is a grey area. There is no line to draw to know when you're informed enough to give out advice on a particular topic. This part involves a lot of self-reflection and objectivity, so it's no wonder trainers get it "wrong".

There's a spectrum of people who don't stay in their own lane. Trainers who play sport nutritionist only having learned about "if it fits your macros" a few months ago. Personal trainers who play manual or physio-therapist despite not receiving any formal education in the area. Trainers who receive a NKT or cupping certificate over the weekend and think they're rehab gods or have figured out the code to rehabbing injured patients (don't even get me started on this). I could go on and on...

To make a quick buck, or to make themselves look like more of an expert. It doesn't matter. It waters down the field and is completely disrespectful to the professionals that have been in the trenches and have put in years learning the particular area or topic. It's not only stubborn to think that one can learn the in and outs of an area over the weekend, but dangerous to the potential clients, athletes and patients that follow these trainers.

Do some self-reflection on how much you really know of a topic before you decide to sell your services. Learn how to say "I don't know, I'll refer you to someone or I'll try to find out for you" to your clients and athletes. Be curious and sell the best services you can to your clients, but be humble.

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The Fitness Industry Moving Forwards

With the rising popularity of celebrity diets, Instagram model-sponsored supplements, squats on bosu balls and all the problems I've been discussing above, is the state of the fitness and personal training industry the worst it's ever been?

I don't believe so. I think it's actually the best it's ever been and is improving a greater rate than ever before.

Availability heuristic is a cognitive bias that causes you to make incorrect assessments and assumptions, making you believe something happens more frequently or is more prevalent than it actually is. 

If you ask the majority of people, they'll think poverty, murder and terrorism is much more serious and more prevalent than it was a few years or decades ago. When in fact, poverty and mortality rates have been as low as they've ever been, and other areas like literacy and basic education have been steadily improving (look at the figure below).

The increased exposure to social media, news outlets and daily news has made us believe these problems are more rampant than they actually are. People believe ISIS is the worse group ever in the history of the world, when there have actually been multiple factions of terrorist groups that have carried out the most gruesome massacres and genocides before the popularity of social media and news.

On a less serious note, some people in the fitness and personal training industry suffer from this availability heuristic. You see advice about knees not being allowed to go past your toes while squatting? You might be convinced the majority of trainers still don't know how to teach a proper squat. 

Yes, there are still trainers spewing out garbage, big supplement companies are still cashing in money on people gullible enough to buy a plethora of useless supplements. But don't forget about the increased financial awareness of consumers in the age of technology, the ability to read reviews on fitness products, as well as the thoughtful debates and discussions about fitness and nutrition on Facebook (I use the word "thoughtful" loosely haha).

Anecdotally, I also noticed the personal trainers down at the local commercial gym have been improving as the demand for higher quality training from more self-aware consumers has been increasing. It's much harder to get away with heavy squats on a bosu ball nowadays without getting your fitness page and reputation ripped to shreds. 

Here's a list of why I think the fitness industry is the best it's ever been:

• The growing skepticism and awareness of consumers drives companies to create higher quality products
  

• Amalgamation of professionals from different niches (Personal trainers, dieticians, strength & conditioning coaches, sport psychologists, rehabilitation therapists) on Facebook and online forums
  

• The rise of evidence-based training and nutrition plus the growing demand for these methods
  

• The benefits of strength training are reaching and influencing a greater number of people
  

• More women are buying into the benefits of strength training and competing in strength sports
  

• The pure strength training circle is starting to see the performance and health benefits of including cardio and endurance training
  

• The biopsychosocial model of pain and rise of pain science is changing the way rehabilitation professionals look at injuries and chronic pain management
  

• Trainers and coaches are able to help a wider range of clients worldwide through online training
  

• Evidence-based nutrition recommendations plus knowledge of flexible dieting and intuitive eating are helping people reach their body weight and body transformation goals more effectively; alleviating body image issues and eating disorders

There will always be myths to bust and fad diets to tell people to stay away from, but I believe the fitness industry is improving. Maybe I'm suffering from avaiability heuristic myself, but as a trainer that used to be very vocal and cynical about bro-science and poor advice, I can't help but accept the fact that this industry has improved significantly since I started and can't wait to see what the future holds.

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Have an opinion? What are your thoughts? I'd love to hear them. Comment down below or visit me on my Facebook page!

How To Get Started With Your Fitness and Diet Routine: Discipline, Motivation and Delaying Gratification

Picking up a new skill or committing to a new lifestyle change can be difficult, even down right daunting for some. As someone who constantly tries to challenge himself and help others overcome their biggest barriers, I see a big common obstacle holding people back.

Many people are afraid to pursue new hobbies and learn skills because they're afraid their time commitment won't be worth it. In the realm of fitness and dieting, people hesitate to start to a training program if they don't see the value in it or if they don't believe the results will be worth the hard work. Let's face it, starting a work out plan SUCKS. You are get sore, you get tired, you feel like puking and worst of all, you don't see results until a few weeks in. Humans are naturally unable to hold of short-term gratification (continue living a sedentary life style because its easy) for long-term success (better metabolic health, fitter, healthier) - it's a survival mechanism! Why start a training program or diet if it cuts into your current schedule and takes time away from the hobbies you love? What if results aren't guaranteed? 

The Marshmallow Experiment was a series of studies led by a professor from Standford University. In these studies, children were offered an immediate rewards (marshmallows or cookies in this case) or a much larger rewards (several marshmallows) if they waited for a short period of time. Follow-up studies found that children who were able to wait had better life outcomes.

Similar studies were done with younger adults who were offered either $5 immediately, or $15 if they waited a day or two (can't seem to find the studies, feel free to PM or link it to me if you do find it!).

My point is, the biggest obstacle that people face with their fitness goals is the uncertainty about the future. Being able to fight through pain and becoming more comfortable in uncomfortable situations, like from your first few weeks of working out and dieting, is crucial for long term success and health. I understand it's hard, but here are some solutions:

Educate yourself:

• Watch a 10 minute video on fitness everyday. Expose yourself to the lifestyle before jumping in head first. This will help you build confidence.

• Learn about the benefits of resistance training and cardiovascular exercise

• Most importantly, find examples of people you know who have changed their life for the better through healthy living, exercise and fitness. Talk to these people. Ask questions! They'll be glad to share their story and help you.

The education process reinforces the notion that results WILL be made if you put the work in. You just have to give it time. This relieves uncertainty about the future and gives you direction and affirmation.

Ease your way into a routine:

• Start off with 1-2 workouts a week.

• Make small changes to your diet, whether its by elimination (no more soda or sugary drinks on weekdays), or introduction (including a minimum of 2 green salads on the weekend).

This is the "testing the waters" part. Gradual changes to your current lifestyle is the easiest way to transition into a more healthier one.  

Big overhauls to your diet or schedule can be very effective, but be careful of burnout or rebounding. If you're a person that receives motivation through faster initial results, a big overhaul or sudden lifestyle change might be beneficial. This is why "fat loss challenges" or "30 day transformation challenges" can be so successful.

I hope this helps you kick start your fitness journey!

For a more detailed article on how to more successfully build habits in the fitness world, read my article "The Ultimate Guide To Building Sustainable Fitness Habits".

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Lose Weight By Eating More?

Before anyone jumps down my throat, yes, I know well that to lose weight you have to be in a calorie deficit - eating less calories than you burn.

However, anyone who's followed a diet will notice that consuming less food can often result in lower energy levels throughout the day, negatively affecting our mood and most importantly, our activity levels.

NEAT (non-exercise activity thermogenesis)

Represents all the physical activity throughout the day that isn't considered exercise - walking, fidgeting around, work, etc. When you restrict calorie intake, it can cause you to move less outside of the gym in your daily life. This decrease in NEAT can ultimately cause your fat loss to plateau. Although this is doesn't happen 100% of the time, it's smart to and monitor your physical activity using a basic activity tracker like the FitBit for example and see if your activity levels drop when dieting. It's also smart to be more aware of your mood from day to day and how it affects your motivation levels and your ability to get up and move.

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I've written in detail about NEAT and daily calorie expenditure, what they are, and how to use it to your advantage to help your weight loss and fitness goals. Click here to read.

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I am in no way advocating for ridiculously high calorie intakes and trying to catch up on your weight loss by performing hours upon hours of exercise. Most people do not have the time nor energy to do so. What I'm advocating for matching the positive mood and motivation levels that comes with a more moderate calorie intake, with higher NEAT levels throughout the day.

If you feel groggy and unmotivated eating 2000 calories a day, it may be smart to increase it to 2250 or a number you'll feel more comfortable or happier at. From here reach a calorie deficit by an extra 5000 steps a day or by staying more active outside of the gym.

Go for a walk on the beach. Go for a bike ride. Move more around the house. Keep yourself active, but keep it simple. The main goal here to is develop a more active lifestyle and making small tweaks to our diet to better accomodate it. Hope it helps!

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Concurrent Training: Science and Practical Application

Concurrent Training (CT) is defined as the combination of resistance and endurance training in a periodized program to maximize all aspects of physical performance. Unless an athlete is in a pure-power sport like Olympic Weightlifting, or a pure-endurance sport like long distance cycling; a combination of both power-related and endurance-related attributes are required to excel in mixed-type sports. Mixed type sports are sports that depend on several different energy systems and different strength and speed properties. MMA, boxing, basketball, soccer, hockey and many other team-based sports fall under this category.

In the world of bodybuilding and strength sports, cardio is used as an umbrella term for all types of endurance training protocols. Often as a joke among lifting circles, cardio has been stigmatized to "steal your gains", so far to the point that some lifters see it as a badge of honor to be out of shape and possess almost no cardiovascular conditioning in return for being able to lift a massive amount of weights.

In the world of endurance sports like running and cycling, strength training can be seen as an unnecessary training method that adds unwanted muscle mass to the frame of an endurance athlete, possibly slowing them down and being detrimental to their performance. The term "meathead" might even be applied to people who lift weights.

This article will shed some light on what cardio and strength training has to offer to each training demographic/niche and how a mixed-typed athlete can best organize their training so they reap in the benefits of both training modalities with little to no interference. 

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The Science and theories behind ct

In one of the first research studies carried out on the effects of concurrent training, Hickson (1980) observed that training both strength and endurance qualities simultaneously had detrimental effects on strength development but did not negatively impact aerobic qualities. Building off of research by Hickson, more recent studies have shown a wide variation of responses in concurrent training, both positive and negative. This suggest that CT methods are still inconslusive and variables such as genetic differences, modality of endurance training, nutritional status and training time may play a role in mediating the effects.

Termed the molecular signaling theory, it has been hypothesized that the distinct molecular signaling pathways of strength and endurance exercise adaptation may be incompatible and inhibit the development of each other.

Other theories speculate that the poor management of both resistance and endurance exercise variables may expose athletes to higher incidents of overreaching and overtraining. For example, the high volume nature of endurance training paired with heavy strength training may make recovery more difficult, increasing the risk of overtraining and injury to an athlete. In conjunction with observing the effects of CT, uncovering the potential mechanisms behind the molecular signaling theory is needed to understand how strength, power and endurance can be developed simultaenously. 

Molecular signaling theory

Taken from "Molecular Responses To Strength & Endurance Training - Are They Incompatible?"

Resistance training adaptations such as muscle fibre hypertrophy, strength and power acquisition are known to be mediated by molecular signaling pathways known as the AKT and mTOR pathways. Resistance exercise that create large force outputs, mechanical tension and stretch, as well as muscle damage and swelling are activators of these hypertrophic pathways (Brad Schoenfeld talks more in depth about this in his frequently cited research article - "The Mechanisms of Muscle Hypertrophy and Their Application to Resistance Training"). Many of the compound powerlifts that recruit larger amounts of muscle mass have the capability to create large force outputs and mechanical tension, while exercises such as isolation exercises taken to failure, drop sets, supersets, giant sets, contribute more to metabolic stress and cell swelling.

In contrast, prolonged and repetitive low intensity muscle contractions activate signaling pathways involving the enzymes AMPK and CaMK, which are responsible for adaptations related to endurance training such as mitochondrial biogensis; allowing you to walk, run, swim and bike further and more efficiently.

Capturing the attention of researchers, the observed suppression of mTOR signalling pathways by increased AMPK activation has been the focus and basis behind the molecular signaling interference theory. AMPK activation downregulates and can blunt the hypertrophic response to a resistance training workout or program by inhibiting mTOR and can increase protein degradation through other pathways we won't get too deep into. mTOR can even be downregulated indepedent of AMPK activation, through a family of proteins called SIRT (more information here for the nerds). What you need to know is that when performing cardio training during a resistance program, muscle hypertrophy, strength and power can be compromised. 

So were the bros right all along? Does cardio in-fact, kill your gains?

Not so fast. It is not uncommon to see increased endurance performance or improved resistance training outcomes with CT, thus several studies have made arguments for the limitations of the interference theory. In some cases, resistance training can upregulate AMPK, and aerobic exercise can also induce increases in mTOR activity; therefore a positive transfer effect might be present when intensity, volume and frequency of each training modality are strategically manipulated.

It should also be noted that the results of research studying the acute effects of exercise and molecular signaling cannot always be predictive of future chronic adaptations. If athletes have no CT experience, the interference effect might be just occur until the athletes acclimatizes the the CT methods. It is also possible that the interference effect may not be present until later into a training cycle where there is an accumulation of resistance and endurance training fatigue due to increased training loads, or intensity. For example, the original CT study by Hickson (1980) found there were no interference effects until the 8th week of training.

Since molecular signalling has been found to be highly variable depending on the training status of the individual (strength trained vs. endurance trained vs. completely untrained), CT variables must be prescribed based on athletes' current training status and previous training experience.

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Concurrent Training Effects on Resistance Training Adaptations

Varying modality, intensity, frequency and volume of training has been shown to affect the magnitude of molecular signaling and protein synthesis. Therefore we know that the degree of interference between signaling pathways can also vary depending on programming variables. Since AMPK downreulgates mTOR signaling and NOT vice versa, its hypothesized CT can be more detrimental to resistance training (RT) related adaptations compared to endurance training (ET) related adaptations. 

Muscle Hypertrophy

Muscle size and hypertrophy is a highly sought after adaptation in the fitness world, both as a means to improve metabolic health, and a way to achieve an aesthetic physique. 

With several studies concluding that CT blunts muscle hypertrophy, excessive training volume has been predicted to be the cause of overtraining and fatigue when comparing CT groups to resistance training only groups. Based on our knowledge of exercise adaptations, we should know that RT volumes performed by an elite bodybuilder cannot be concurrently trained successfully with ET volumes performed by an elite triathlete due to nutritional and time constraints. However, to date, there is no conclusive evidence that hypertrophy is blunted when low-volume aerobic exercises is added into a training program; some studies have even shown it might mitigate muscle loss (Study #1, Study #2). High volume ET on the contrary, can be detrimental due to the factors discussed above (interference theory OR overtraining/fatigue theory OR... both). For practical recommendations on how to avoid interfering with your hypertrophic workouts, read below in the practical application section.

Strength & power

In a large scale meta-analyses of CT effect sizes, Wilson et al (2012) observed that in many studies, power was significantly lowered during CT while muscle cross sectional area and strength was maintained. This suggests that force at high velocities (think of a vertical jump, NOT a heavy squat) may be affected to a more significant degree with concurrent ET than force at lower velocities. The mechanism behind this could be attributed to motor unit and specific muscle fiber type innervation. During classical long duration endurance exercises, the majority of muscle action and force production comes from low threshold, fatigue-resistant type I muscle fibers. There may be a shift from type IIx fibers to type IIa fibers or type IIa to type I fibers to accommodate the oxygen-demanding adaptations of endurance exercise during concurrent training therefore aerobic exercise can be detrimental to athletes that require a high rate of force development rate and power when poorly programmed into a periodized plan.

To better compliment the demands of strength and power sports, prescribing lower volume - higher intensity and velocity interval type ET may be more beneficial in terms of maintenance and improvement of power. This may be because of the similarities in the motor unit/muscle fibre recruitment patterns in RT and high-intensity based ET. When viewing this from an interference theory stand point, the high energy costs and high activation of AMPK from high-intensity ET could potentially magnify the interference effect but the research does not support this claim as there has been no cases of muscle mass loss when high-intensity ET is prescribed in a low-volume fashion. Research isn't conclusive but it is clear the intensity and volume of endurance training affect muscular strength and power outcomes.

When it comes to training modality, it is hypothesized that modalities that require a lot of eccentric muscle action can cause excessive muscle damage, further impeding the muscle recovery process from a challenging RT session. Because of this, predominantly concentric movements, are favored over running (a movement that includes a lot of eccentric contractions - think of every time your foot strikes the ground), like cycling and prowler pushes. Cycling, specifically hill climbing, can also resemble resistance-like loading patterns and can induce lower body hypertrophy that may compliment RT adaptations. Following this stream of thought, other ET modalities that possess lower eccentric muscle action and lower impact stress like swimming or modalities that have similar loading patterns to resistance training such as prowler-pushes and sled drags can also be used to improve cardiovascular conditioning when training concurrently. 

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Concurrent Training Effects on Endurance Adaptations

Well-trained athletes often show different responses to exercise compared to untrained individuals, endurance athletes are no different as they may see dissimilar improvements from RT compared to untrained or already resistance-trained individuals. High volume and high frequency endurance training make it hard for endurance athletes to improve muscle size, strength and power without cutting into the recovery process of ET. Paired with the high energy expenditure and AMPK levels from ET, CT can be problematic for endurance based athletes.

Wang et al (2012) showed that resistance training following endurance training elicited greater PGC-1a actavation (a regulator of energy metabolism and endurance adaptations) and therefore more oxidation capacity improvements than endurance training alone. The increase in activation of PCG-1a was thought to be related to the high amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lactate concentrations produced during CT vs. endurance training alone. AMPK activation however, was not a plausible explanation for the improvements in oxidative capacity as AMPK was similar in both the CT and ET-only group. The researchers suggest that the RT portion of the CT group upregulated mTOR, which had a positive effect on PGC-1a. The interactions between mTOR and PGC-1a also have implications for muscle and endurance performance.

Another study concluded that resistance training has positive implications for endurance performance, mainly due to increases in type IIa muscle fibers and a greater potential for force production (Study). This means endurance athletes that concurrently resistance train can improve their average and peak power outputs, which play a big factor during races and time trials. In addition, a study looking at the effects of CT found that pairing strength circuit training along with an ET program (same workout session) improved aerobic performance more than an ET program alone where VO2max and 4km time trial performance both increased slightly more in the CT group compared to the ET only group. The beneficial effects of RT for endurance athletes cannot be overlooked!

Resistance training can also benefit endurance events of different durations. For shorter, more anaerobic dominant endurance events like the 400m/800m run, most swimming events and many team sports, performance can be improved by increasing muscular strength and neuromuscular function that can't be achieved with ET alone. For long aerobic endurance events and competitions like marathon runners, and triathletes, improvements in performance can be attributed to the higher economy of movement induced by RT (study), which simply means endurance athletes that resistance trained were able to more efficiently use their energy to travel at any given velocity, saving them energy in a long race.

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Concurrent Training Timing

(AE = Aerobic Exercise)
(RE = Resistance Exercise)
Disclaimer: This is not my chart.

If we base our training order off the molecular signaling theory of the interference effect, ET would be best performed prior to RT (within the same day). Since AMPK downregulates mTOR and not vice versa, an ET session that raises AMPK levels will not have a chance to interrupt mTOR signalling if RT is performed after. But we also need to take into account other facts to help us maximize training adaptations and minimize any interference.

The interference theory can manifest in the form of negative interactions between protein activity and molecular signalling, but coaches cannot overlook the more simple explanations as to why there might be an interference effect when training several physical attributes or modalities. Reduced training quality can also be an explanation as to why CT causes interference problems. For example, after performing a ET session, performance in the subsequent RT session may be diminished due to pre-exhaustion. This is problematic if a particular athlete needs to prioritize his/her RT session because of their personal goals, weaknesses or position on a sports team. Coaches and athletes must plan and prioritize which training sessions are more important and the introduction of rest and nutrition must be taken into account to mitigate any interference effects.

In order to minimize the fatigue and the interference effect, a 24-hour recovery period between training sessions is suggested; the longer the better. However, this suggestion is often not practical for subelite or elite athletes that want to or are required to train 2 and up to 3 times a day. Based on the time course of AMPK elevation and it's downregulation of mTOR signaling, a minimum recovery time of 3 hours is suggested between ET and RT sessions. Although 3 hours is enough to reduce the molecular signaling part of the interference theory, its also suggested that 6 hours or more is needed to reduce the muscular fatigue from the previous ET bout and retain muscular performance during a subsequent RT session. When high-intensity ET was performed prior to RT, force production was reduced for at least 6  hours, while the capacity to perform higher volume RT was also diminished for up to 8 hours. As noted by Robinuea et al (2014), technical and tactical training sessions in team sports also have an cardiovascular and endurance component to it, not scheduling adequate rest before a subsequent RT session could be detrimental to performance.

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Nutritional Protocols For Concurrent Training

Scheduling adequate recovery time in between RT and ET sessions can also allow for nutritional interventions to decrease the interference effect. Since AMPK is increased when the energy status of an athlete is low, RT in theory, is better performed in a fed-state to allow for optimal mTOR signaling post-workout. Ingesting carbohydrates and high-quality, leucine-containing protein supplements or whole foods to fuel post-exercise-induced increases in muscle glycogen and protein synthesis is crucial when training concurrently. In contrast, performing ET while in a fasted state (low-intensities) can promote PGC-1a and AMPK signaling, exemplifying ET adaptations. 

Here is my article on nutritional periodization.

Here is a research review on nutritional methods used to maximize concurrent training.

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Practical Application & Recommendations

In light of this research, endurance athletes should focus on programming moderate volume, moderate to high intensity RT around their prioritized ET, sport-specific, sessions.

Strength and power-based athletes should include low to moderate volume ET in order to attenuate the interference effect while still reaping in the benefits of ET such as improving blood flow for recovery or building some general work capacity in the off-season or restoration period.

For mixed-type and team sport athletes, the proportion of RT and ET should be strategically programmed based on the energetic and muscular demands of the sport, an athlete's strength & weaknesses, as well as their position on the team.

The Dilemma 

So when it comes to within-day training order, there is a dilemma on whether RT should come before or after ET. 

If RT comes before ET, performance during the RT session will hypothetically be higher quality due an absence of residual ET fatigue but hypertrophic signaling will be downregulated after the ET session.

If RT comes after ET, the glucose/substrate depletion and residual fatigue from ET will reduce the training quality of the RT session and may also blunt the hypertrophic response. Specifically, AMPK is upregulated by increased energy expenditure and substrate depletion, negatively affecting the mTOR pathway.

So what do you do? It really depends on your goals.

For me to offer any rigid periodization schemes or training methods would be counterproductive. Coaches and trainers need to plan their athletes' demands, circumstances, strength, weaknesses and limitations. Training should be evidence-based but there is also a lot of room to be creative in their program design. I'll give you some tips:

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If You Are training for hypertrophy...

• Endurance training after resistance training if your ET session is low to moderate volume. The ET session ideally will use different muscles than the ones emphasized in your RT session. It is still unknown whether the molecular signaling theory of the interference effect is peripherally driven - meaning muscle specific, or if it is systemic (whole body interference regardless of muscle trained) sessions. If the interference effect is peripherally driven, a viable strategy would be to perform an upper body lifting session, followed by a lower body only cardio session like cycling. 

• Endurance training before resistance training if you have 3-6 hours of recovery time in between the two sessions and are able to refuel with carbohydrates and some protein.

• Use low-impact ET modalities like prowler, cycling, sled drags, elliptical, swimming, etc... to avoid any more stress on your joints and muscles

• Use moderate-volume, low-intensity ET to improve heart health, blood flow to working muscles as a form of recovery, control energy expenditure to mediate diet/macros and calories intake.

• Use Zone 1 to warm up prior to lifting sessions.

• Use Zone 2 on off days or as a separate training session to improve the benefits discussed above (heart health, energy expenditure, etc.)

• Additionally, you can use Zones 4 and 5 as a "finisher" to hypertrophy-based workouts as a form of metabolic stress. These zones recruits similar muscle fibers and uses the same energy systems as strength training sessions.

If you are training for strength...

• Endurance training after resistance training if your ET session is low to moderate volume. The ET session ideally will use different muscles than the ones emphasized in your RT session. Same rule applies from the hypertrophy section.
  

• Endurance training before resistance training if you have 6+ hours of recovery time in between the 2 sessions and are able to refuel with carbohydrates and some protein. Since strength training emphasizes sport technique (powerlifting, weightlifting, Strongman) more so than general hypertrophy training and operates at higher intensities (as a % of 1RM), it is extra important that muscle residual fatigue is as low as possible.
  

• Use low-impact ET modalities like prowler, cycling, sled drags, elliptical, swimming, etc... to avoid any more stress on your joints and muscles.
  

• Use Zone 2 on off days or as a separate training session to improve the benefits discussed above (heart health, energy expenditure, etc.) I personally like doing Zone 2 easier, low-impact aerobic workouts with a mobility and stretching routine to promote recovery on off days.
  

• Zone 4 and 5 can be used as intervals on the prowler, sled, rower or ski-erg to increase top end cardiovascular conditioning to help you improve your work capacity for high volume lifting workouts.
  

If you are training for power...

• Endurance training session after your resistance training session if your ET session is low to moderate volume.
  

• Endurance training before resistance training is definitely not recommended. If it must be done, take as much recovery time as possible between sessions and refuel adequately and avoid working the same muscle groups. Pre-fatigued power workouts can be dangerous! Ideally rest 24+ hours.
  

• Use low-impact ET modalities like prowler, cycling, sled drags, elliptical, swimming, etc... to avoid any more stress on your joints and muscles
  

• Use Zone 2 on off days or as a separate training session to improve the benefits discussed above (heart health, energy expenditure, etc.) I personally like doing Zone 2 easier, low-impact aerobic workouts with a mobility and stretching routine to promote recovery on off days.
  

If you are an long event endurance athlete...

• In almost all situations, resistance training AFTER endurance training is the best choice. You avoid pre-fatiguing yourself before your sport-specific training sessions (endurance training) and avoid downregulating mTOR to any significant degree.
  

• Resistance training should focus on complex and compound exercises that span across several different muscles and movement types. Use weights anywhere from 70-90% of your 1RM. This is important for building a strong and healthy body that can withstand the high volumes of endurance training by building tissue resilience, tendon strength and core strength. Avoid using silly training methods like 30+ rep sets with 50% of your 1RM in hopes of building muscular endurance. Endurance will be built specifically in your sport already.
  

• Time is valuable. Don't fall into the trap of training on unstable training surfaces or overly-specific exercises that try to mimic movements from your endurance sport. Stick with the basics. Push, pull, hip hinge, squats, etc...
  

• Endurance athletes training in the off-season or restoration period can experiment with fasted training. More on this in my nutritional periodization article.
  

If you are a shorter event endurance athlete...

• In almost all situations, resistance training AFTER endurance training is the best choice. You avoid pre-fatiguing yourself before your sport-specific training sessions (endurance training) and avoid downregulating mTOR to any significant degree.
  

• Shorter event endurance athletes like 400-800m runners or track cyclists will greatly benefit from resistance training and is almost a requirement to excel in many short endurance sports. Use weights anywhere from 70-100% of your 1RM to build muscle mass and strength. Power training can be included using anywhere from 30-70% of 1RM to match the demands of the sport and can benefit endurance athletes involved in sports that require bursts of high-intensity efforts.
  

• Again, don't fall into the trap of training on unstable surfaces or overly-specific exercises. Exercise selection though, should be more carefully planned to match some of the movement patterns seen in the endurance sport. There is a bigger carry over for shorter event endurance athletes vs. longer event athletes.
  

• Endurance athletes training in the off-season or restoration period can experiment with fasted training. More on this in my nutritional periodization article.
  

If you are a mixed type athlete or team sport athlete

Mixed type sport athletes can have vastly different demands depending on the sport itself and the position played. Luckily through a needs-analysis, all sports can be plotted onto a endurance and strength attribute spectrum. Below is a figure outlining the physical demands of several sports.

Start by mapping out the specific strength and endurance demands, movement patterns, and energy demands of your position or sport and follow the principles discussed above to get the most out of your training sessions!

FREE EBOOK CHAPTER DOWNLOAD

Chapter 7 of the eBook, “The Sport-Specific Trap - Revisiting Dynamic Correspondence for Combat Sports” talks about key concepts to consider when selecting exercises to enhance combat sports performance and some common mistakes coaches make.

Learning More About MMA Sports Science - Podcasts and Resources

Bas Rutten Hitting a Heavy Bag on Fight Science (show).

In a "what have you done for me lately" sport, injuries and botched performances can make or break a fighter's career. From Cain's atrocious 200lb kettlebell swings, to Tony Ferguson's back-breaking deadlifts, bad training methods and protocols are everywhere. Luckily, there are great coaches and trainers that are changing the way fighters prepare and perform.

As a coach that aspires to train elite MMA athletes, I love learning about what goes into the preparation of elite MMA athletes and how it stacks up with my own training philosphies. 

You understand striking, you understand grappling, you understand the consequences and the excitement of MMA. Nothing better to round off your knowledge than understanding fight preparation and physical performance science. Regular and hardcore fans alike will find these conversations interesting and can even be an eye opener for some. If you love sports science and if you love MMA, these are for you. Below are my favorite podcasts interviewing the top names in the world of MMA.

PJ Nestler (Preparation coach for BJJ champions)
http://sigmanutrition.com/episode173/

Corey Peacock (Preparation coach for Rumble, Suga, Mitrione, Michael Chandler)
http://sigmanutrition.com/episode171/

Danny Lennon's Performance Nutrition For Fighters - Common Mistakes:
http://sigmanutrition.com/episode141/

Dr. Doug Kalman (Performance nutritionist for former Blackzillians)
http://sigmanutrition.com/episode70/

Joel Jamieson (Strength & Conditioning coach to Mighty Mouse)
http://robertsontrainingsystems.com/blog/physical-preparation-with-joel-jamieson/

Loren Landow (Preparation coach for TJ Dillasnake)
https://fightcampconditioning.com/mma-strength-coach-loren-landow/

Chad Macias (Preparation coach for Phil Davis, Gastelum and others at Alliance MMA)
https://fightcampconditioning.com/podcast/chad-macias/

Phil Daru (Preparation coach at American Top Team)
http://www.mmafighting.com/2017/3/19/14841080/technique-talk-phil-daru-injury-training-performance-mma-news

Brett Bartholomew (Coach for many fighters at Unbreakable Performance - Rockhold, Faber, Ferguson, etc)
https://fightcampconditioning.com/podcast/brett-bartholomew-unbreakable-performance/

Jon Chaimberg (S&C Coach for GSP)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYE5tfPY2GU

If you follow my blog, you'll know I've also written some of my own articles on MMA Strength & Conditioning: Part 1, Part 2. (I'm not sure when I'll get to "finish" off the series).

Periodization 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This fifth installment will discusses the complexities of periodization and what to take into account when reading research about periodization.
 

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Unanswered questions about periodization

So far, we've discussed the history of periodization, specifically how it came to be and why it was needed. We've also covered the physiological basis behind periodization and how training effects and variation play a role in creating a yearly and monthly plan for competitive athletes. Lastly, we dissected various periodization models and determined their defining characteristics. 

On the surface, it may seem like these periodized training variables are already set in stone and backed by science, and athletes can achieve their best performance results just by following a strategically-written training program. However, there are still many unanswered questions about periodization:

Variation is needed, but HOW MUCH is needed?

What is the best periodization model for this sport ___?

What is the best periodization model for this athlete ___?

What is the best tapering/peaking method?

Does performance improve because of periodized and strategically planned variations, or simply because of a novel training stimulus?

How do you utilize periodization with your clients and athletes if you're... a high performance coach? A powerlifter? A personal trainer? A weight loss specialist? A dietician? A sports nutritionist? 

Does periodization even matter to you? Should you even care?

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Problems and limitations to the theory of periodization

Periodization philosophy is largely based on the fact that adaptations to physical exercise can be predicted and that it follows a determinable pattern, which can be problematic. The genotype-VO2max related Heritage Family Study as well as other studies looking at resistance training-focused interventions show several examples of how one exercise protocol can result in a wide range of responses in different populations and different subjects.

In the Heritage Family Study, an endurance training protocol was able to increase the average VO2max of the subjects by 19%. However, 5% of the participants saw no change in their VO2 values, while another 5% saw an increase of up to 50%. In a resistance training intervention, 12 weeks of a strength training program saw a 54% average increase in strength. The "non-responders" saw no increase in strength while more highly sensitive responders saw a 250% increase. 250%!!

Training adaptations are not only mediated by the training program itself (assuming adherence to the training protocols are close to 100%), but by other factors such as initial training age of the subjects, nutritional and dietary habits/protocols, recovery and restoration of the athletes (are they sleeping enough?), and exercise technique. 

Initial Training Experience and Age of the Subjects

Like I alluded in the earlier articles, the initial fitness or training experience of a subject plays a factor in the results we expect to see after prescribing them a training protocol. Because novice and beginner trainees have low initial functioning performance measures, research studies focused on periodized training programs are unable to discern which periodization model works better for this population. When you're a beginner, almost everything works!

For example, in the realm of concurrent training (strength and endurance training together and their interaction), untrained individuals are usually able to increase both their strength and endurance performance with minimal interference between the 2 modalities. Trained individuals on the other hand, experience a greater interference effect when performing concurrent training: endurance training diminishes the adaptations of their resistance training and vice versa.

Nutrition and Dietary Protocols, Recovery & Restoration.

Nutrition has a large impact on training outcomes and adaptations. The fact that some strength, endurance or periodization studies don't account for dietary intake is problematic. For example, if protein intake is not controlled for in subjects of a strength training based research study, no amount of program-periodizing can come to any consistent conclusions about periodization and muscle strength or hypertrophy. I've written about nutritional periodization in detail here - check it out.

Recovery and rest obviously play a big role in the training process as well as it directly affects training performance, fatiguability of the athlete, and at the end of the day, determines how much progress they'll be able to make.

Exercise Technique

This is a variable that is often overlooked in research studies looking at the effects of periodization on strength in particular. Athletes and subjects that possess more biomechanically efficient lifting technique have a higher ceiling for strength acquisition, therefore may experience greater strength gains on any given training program. Subjects that are inexperienced, or have glaring flaws in their lifting technique are not able to reap in the full benefits of a periodized plan as their technique acts as a bottleneck for progress.

There is no quantitative way to assess lifting technique, therefore it is a variable that is hard to control in a research setting. I'm a firm believer that the execution of the lift, or of training itself, is very important in order to get the most out of a training plan.

Due to the practicality and perhaps lack of research funding, many of these variables I've discussed above are not taking into account when researchers design a study looking at different periodization models. Take these research study results with a grain of salt and remember: principles are always better than rigid, inflexible methods and systems.

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The Complexity of human performance

As you can tell, the reality of human biology is very complex, much more complex of that of a car, a phone, or a computer. Despite what we know about exercise physiology and exercise science, strategic and well-planned training inputs into a human biosystem does not always ensure consistent predicted outcomes. As a consequence, performance, a multidimensional phenomenon comprised of physical, psychological and emotional factors, is hard to predict.

How much adaptation and how much progress an athlete makes from a training program can vary depending on an individual's hormonal response, genetic predispositions, motivation, stress levels, as well as transient social and environmental variables like the ones listed above. John Kiely, a respected coach and researcher, suggests that there must be great care taken when attempting to use isolated examples of athletes or periodization methods when trying to create an intervention or training program. In some cases, an athlete may have performed successfully despite a strategic periodized program, rather than because of it. This is a matter of recognizing confounding variables and avoiding falling into cognitive biases. Critical thinking and questions should be put forth during any periodized program:  What are the individuals that don't see results doing differently? What confounding variables are we overlooking that have contributed to the success of an athlete or team other than the periodized program?

"Periodization Paradigms in the 21st Century: Evidence-Led Or Tradition-Driven?" by John Kiely (2012) is one of the top 5 most important articles on strength & conditioning and fitness I have ever read. Kiely shares a unique perspective on the complexities of periodization and is able to articulate points I could not have put my finger on. I highly recommend you read it when you get a chance. I have summarized some of his ideas in my article but have also added some of my own.

Another article I suggest is a 2017 review by Afonso et al, titled "Is Empirical Research on Periodization Trustworthy? A comprehensive Review of Conceptual and Methodological Issues".

Modern advanced monitoring tools such as blood lactate measurements, heart rate variability and GPS-tracking technology are also becoming increasing popular, further guiding the scientific basis behind sports and exercise planning. Despite all these advances though, human performance can still run an unpredictable course. Kiely uses the analogy of Earth's weather prediction system: although climate and space technology are very advanced, weather on the smaller scale is very complex and still unpredictable. *Related - If you've never heard of the Chaos Theory or Butterfly effect, here is some information on it. 

This is not to argue that templated periodization programs do not work, rather, proper monitoring of athletes and on-going manipulation of variables should be emphasized and used in conjunction to suit the individual athlete or team. Periodization methods are not set in stone and models are not used exclusively. Some coaches may believe a certain periodization model is superior, when reality their methods are based off of a combination of different models. 

With all that said, let's revisit the definition of periodization.

Previously we said: Periodization is the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training.

A more suitable and all-encompassing definition: Periodization is the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training, including the ongoing process of measuring objectives, outcomes and altering methods in the face of emerging information.

Applying these principles of periodization can be as simple, or as complex as you want, or need it to be. We'll be talking about the application of periodization in the next article.

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Periodization 301: Review Of Periodization Models

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This fourth part will cover and review various periodization models and their defining characteristics. 

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Traditional Periodization

Popularized by sport scientists such as Matveyev and Tudor Bompa, traditional periodization (TP) was one of the first models of periodization created. TP is characterized by the concurrent development of technical, cardiovascular and strength-related abilities, whereby the initial phase is high-volume and low-intensity in nature, progressing towards a low-volume and high-intensity training protocol.  

TP is often referred to as "linear periodization" because of its linear increase in intensity and linear decrease in volume over the training macrocycle. However, this name may be inappropriate when viewed on the mesocycle level, as TP programs still have undulating and wave-like characteristics. Dr. Michael Stone, a world-renowned sports physiologist also believes that TP is confused with the term "linear" because volume is sometimes erroneously calculated using the number of repetitions and sets. In order to properly calculate and monitor training stress, volume load with the consideration intensity must be used. While the set-rep scheme can remain the same, the intensity can fluctuate and change.

For example: 3 sets of 5 reps @ 70% of 1RM is vastly different from 3 sets of 5 reps @ 85% of 1RM in terms of motor unit recruitment and training stress. This common strategy in non-traditional periodization models where "heavy" and "light" days can be used, while the set-rep scheme remains the same. Volume load variation and undulation should define the periodization model and type, NOT the set-rep scheme alone. 

Even "non-linear" or non-traditional periodization models possess linear characteristics when viewed on the macrocyclic-scale, progressing from a state of high-volume low-intensity training, to lower-volume higher-intensity training. However, the undulations of volume and intensity occur more frequently on the mesocycle-level, perhaps week to week, or even day to day (daily undulating periodization). Due to all these factors, the term traditional periodization is better suited. The figure below shows the manipulation of volume and intensity over several phases of a traditionally periodized training program. 

Taken from NSCA Seminar by Nick Winkleman (Athlete Profiling: Choosing a Periodization System to Maximize Individual Performance." Proceedings of NSCA 2012 National Conference, Providence, Rhode Island.

Here is an example of a 12-week TP resistance training program:
Mesocycle 1 - Weeks 1-4: 5 sets of 10 reps @ 65-70% 1RM
Mesocycle 2 - Weeks 5-8: 4 sets of 6 reps @ 75-80% 1RM
Mesocycle 3 - Weeks 9-12: 3 sets of 4 reps @ 85-90% 1RM

In this example, the volume load is decreasing from each mesocycle, while the average intensity is increasing. The main characteristic of TP is that the variation of volume and intensity happen between mesocycles, with little variation occurring within each mesocycle. This goes in line with the concurrent development of physical attributes, where Tudor Bompa believes some traits are best developed together to avoid the interference effect. For example, hypertrophy-based resistance training will be paired with aerobic system development as they both improve under high-volume training. While strength and power training will be paired with anaerobic energy system development and explosive strength and power will be developed simultaneously with alactic and specific endurance work.

TP is more beneficial for novice trainees and lifters as intensity is increased at a slow and gradual pace (from one mesocycle to another), allowing for an un-rushed acquisition of structural and technical changes such as mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle hypertrophy to occur. As discussed previously in Part 201, the development of these abilities follow a sequential order, where hypertrophy and aerobic-based qualities are developed before power, anaerobic and alactic qualities. TP is an excellent model for novice trainees that have not been accustomed to high training volumes and intensities, and can prepare them for future workloads and perhaps other periodization models. 

Defining Characteristics Of A Traditional Periodization Model:

• A macrocycle starts off with high-volume, low-intensity training

• A macrocycle ends off with low-volume, high-intensity training

• Physical attributes are all developed simultaenously

• Variations and undulations in volume and intensity occur from MESOCYCLE to MESOCYCLE.

What Traditional Periodization IS NOT:

• Not to be confused with "linear" increases in intensity from week to week.
  Example:
  5x5 @ 135lbs
  5x5 @ 145lbs
  5x5 @ 155lbs...
  This is a form a progression and is not a defining characteristic of the traditional periodization model.

Limitations of traditional periodization

While TP may be beneficial for novice trainees due to its concurrent development of physical abilities, it may be sub-optimal for intermediate or advanced athletes across a wide range of sports and performance settings. Many other factors also contribute to the need for a revision of the TP model of training, such as:

• Need for contuinual progress and improved performance

• Need for training stressor management in team sports

• Sports that have multiple competitions or a longer competitive season

One major limitation of the TP model is that TP is optimized for climatic sports, sports that require only several performance or one performance over a short-time span. TP does not take into consideration  seasonal sports or team sports that usually possess a longer competition period. An aggressive taper in the pre-season or pre-competition phase of training prepares athletes well for the beginning of the competitive season, however can be detrimental in keeping consistent performance measures over the span of the season.

TP-based programs are also hard to implement with large groups of athletes that participate in regular sport practice, competition and travelling. Seasonal team sport athletes need to maintain a base level of physical fitness during the long in-season in order to prevent detraining effects, therefore the planning of physical training must be altered during the competition period and the pre-competition or preparatory period. Since there is little to no variation in volume and intensity between microcycles/within the mesocycles, using a TP model in seasonal or team sports can be problematic. Athletes are essentially "stuck" with a specific volume and intensity scheme in any given mesocycle, therefore TP is often suggested to be inflexible for scenarios in which athletes need lower or higher intensities of work.

For example, we'll compared soccer player A and soccer player B on the same team.

Soccer player A plays on the starting line up and gets a lot of playing time. 
Soccer player B is relatively new and doesn't get a lot of playing time.

These 2 athletes will need different strength and conditioning maintenance programs in between games and in the competition season because they have uneven playing times, and therefore stress their bodies different. The TP-model doesn't allow soccer player B to jump into more high intensity lifting and endurance sessions that are needed for him to maintain his fitness attributes if they are still at the beginning of a "higher volume" phase. There is a need for different periodization methods depending on the sport, and the position of each player on the team. In team-based sports whose competition season lasts 20-35 weeks, a TP model of training has shown to lead to reductions in maximal strength, muscle mass, maximal speed, as well as the ability to recover between matches (Citation 1, 2). 

Even in individual sports, the increase in financial motivation and total number of competitions a year (play more games/compete in more matches = more money) calls for the revision of the TP model in order to produce more consistent results year round. The slow, monthly-undulatory nature of TP cannot achieve this.

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Non-Traditional Periodization

Much like how TP is mistakenly named linear periodization, non-traditional periodization is often called undulating periodization and misguidedly named non-linear. Non-traditional periodization should technically encompass all the variations and revisions of the original TP.

Firstly, the name "non-linear" is misguided because programs can be viewed as linear or non-linear depending on the size of the scoped used to view the training program. If you step back and look at the big picture, most programs will improve performance over time. If we draw a line of best fit, does this mean every program is "linear"? Perhaps.

Secondly, all types of periodized programs are also undulatory in nature, the degree or time-scale of which undulation occurs is what defines the different models of periodization and is dependent on the type of sport, athlete as well as the time frame given to prepare. 

For the sake of consistency, non-traditional periodization (NTP) will refer to any of the 4 specific subcategories: reverse periodization (RP), weekly undulating periodization (WUP), daily undulating periodization (DUP) and block periodization (BP). 

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Reverse Periodization

Reverse periodization (RP) is a model offered by Ian King, an Australian strength & conditioning coach, who characterized RP as initial phases of low-volume, high-intensity training, moving onto higher volume, lower-intensity training as a competition nears. This is essentially a "reverse" of the TP model. 

Since training variables in a periodized program are developed in a general to specific order, using a RP model-based program would be most suitable for long aerobic endurance sports like road cycling and running, which have competition demands that are high-volume and lower-intensity in nature. The TP model also addresses the general to specific continuum, but mainly for strength and power based sports.

Figure 2 and Figure 3 outlines the difference between TP and RP in terms of preparing for an endurance event (taken from "Base Endurance: Move Forwards with Reverse Periodisation").

Defining Characteristics Of A REVERSE Periodization Model:

• A macrocycle starts off with low-volume and high-intensity training

• A macrocycle ends off with high-volume and low-intensity training

Limitations of Reverse Periodization

The RP model shares many of the same drawbacks as the traditional model, notably, its inflexibility for team sport athletes and non-climatic sports.

An obvious limitation to reverse periodization is that it cannot be applied to power and strength sports, where competitions are high-intensity in nature. Since it is known that volume load is a larger contributor to fatigue than intensity, strength and power-based sport performance will suffer if an athlete heads into competition in a fatigued state. Even in the case where fatigue is strategically-controlled, reducing the intensity over the training cycle will hinder the expression of strength and power and violates the principle of specificity.

In addition, RP does not take into consideration residual training effects. Research has shown that high-intensity resistance training can improve time trial performance via improvements in maximal strength and RFD in elite cyclists - one reason to keep some high-intensity sessions when close to an endurance sport competition. High-intensity training adaptations detrain at a faster rate than cumulative low-intensity training adaptations, therefore if high-intensity training is not performed as competition gets closer, performance in endurance athletes that require intermittent bursts of high-intensity may suffer.

Research comparing RP with other forms of periodization showed that although RP was less effective for strength and hypertrophy compared to TP, RP was more beneficial than TP and daily undulating periodization for increasing muscular endurance (study 1, study 2). RP may be a viable strategy for endurance-based sports but has many pitfalls when applied to strength or power-based sports.

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Undulating periodization

Undulating periodization, specifically daily (DUP) and weekly (WUP) undulating periodization are models that can be characterized by a greater frequency of variation in volume and intensity, achieved on the daily and weekly level. In comparison to TP, the greater variation of training is suggested to be more optimal for experienced athletes and team sports athletes.

DUP consists of day to day variations in volume and intensity. Below is an example of a endurance-based training and a resistance-based training set up.

DUP Configuration of 1 week in a 4-Week Mesocycle (Endurance Training)

• Monday: Low Intensity Steady State

• Wednesday: Lactate Threshold Training

• Friday: High-intensity Intervals

DUP Configuration of 1 week in a 4-Week Mesocycle (Resistance Training)

• Monday: 5x8 @ 70% 1RM

• Wednesday: 4x4 @ 85% 1RM

• Friday: 3x1 @ 95% 1RM

WUP on the other hand, consists of week to week variations in volume and intensity.

WUP Configuration of a 4-Week Mesocycle (Endurance Training)

• 1st Week: Low Intensity Steady State

• 2nd Week: Lactate Threshold Training

• 3rd Week: High-Intensity Intervals

• 4th Week: Unloading/Deload Week

WUP Configuration of a 4-Week Mesocycle (Resistance Training)

• 1st Week: 5x8 @ 70% 1RM

• 2nd Week: 4x4 @ 85% 1RM

• 3rd Week: 3x1 @ 95% 1RM

• 4th Week: Unloading/Deload Week

A popular example of a DUP-based program would be the Westside Barbell Method, while an example of a WUP-based program would be Wendler's 531 program.

Undulating periodization-based programs have become increasing popular across all sports because of its fatigue management and within-mesocycle variations. Coaches have found that volume and intensity can undulate from day to day or week to week, while still achieving the performance and physical attribute improvements comparable to more traditionally based training programs. This flexibility is particularly evident for in-season or athletes that are in their competition-season.

If a team coach requires a hard sport practice the day of a maximal strength training session, the maximal strength session can be pushed back in replacement of a workout targeting local muscle endurance or recovery when using a DUP model of training. DUP programs are also able to stimulate different energy systems and motor units all within the same week. Being able to stimulate both low-intensity and high-intensity adaptations within the same week has important implications for retaining physical performance during long in-season competition periods, a goal TP cannot achieve.

Another example: if a particular sport requires athletes to perform anaerobic work during playing time, but not so much aerobic throughout the in-season, the flexibility of DUP and WUP allows the inclusion of recovery and light aerobic sessions to retain and maintain a base level of aerobic conditioning without being chained to the confines of a TP-based training model where training intensity is based on the mesocycle goal.

The use of heavy and light days in a training week is also considered a form of DUP and can help manage fatigue more efficiently. As Nick Winkleman says: "DUP is great for maintenance, it allows for exposure but not depletion of energy or accumulation of fatigue".

The figures below shows the manipulation of volume and intensity over several phases of a DUP/WUP-based training program and examples of the use of alternating heavy and light days within a training week.

3x/Week Training Frequency.

4x/Week Training Frequency

Defining Characteristics Of An undulating Periodization Model:

• Undulations of volume and intensity occur on a week-to-week or day-to-day scale

Looking at some Research

DUP's flexibility can also be utilized in scenarios where the training environment is unplanned or unpredictable. A study by Peterson et al (2008) observed the effects of DUP versus TP on experienced, trained firefighters, whose job is usually unplanned and stressful in nature. DUP was able to accommodate for these factors by rotating endurance-days, strength-days and power-days. These different pathways were stimulated in a way where no one system was overly fatigued while progress could still be made. At the end of the 12-week intervention, the DUP group saw greater improvements in strength, power and firefighter-specific performance measures.

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Block periodization

Block periodization (BP) originally called the Coupled Successive System by Yuri Verkoshansky, was developed and popularized by figures such as Verkoshansky himself, Anatoliy Bondarchuk and Vladimir Issurin. BP is considered an advanced periodization-model directed towards advanced, elite-level athletes. The basis behind BP is that elite-level athletes who are reaching the functional limits of their physical performance require highly concentrated training loads in order to further increase performance. In BP, a concentrated high-volume load "block" of training is directed towards a select group of physical capabilities, where these adaptations can be realized in the subsequent low-volume block.

BP heavily involves the concepts of cumulative and residual effects and deeply emphasizes sequential development of abilities. This is suitable for athlete already possess a solid training base and are able to handle several microcycles of very high-volume concentrated training. Although this type of training provides an optimal amount of saturation on the physical abilities that are selected, it comes at the expense of other motor abilities that are pushed to the side. For example, in a block dedicated to power training, aerobic qualities and muscular endurance might be comprised, but the BP model accounts for this by including a minimal amount of work to at least maintain these qualities.

Terms like "accumulation", "transmutation" and "realiziation" are also used in BP to describe the sequential development of phases. The accumulation phase focuses on basic abilities such as aerobic endurance and hypertrophy, the transmutation phase focuses on sport-specific abilities, while the realization phase focuses on restoration and tapering. As one can see, there can be parallels drawn between BP-based and TP-based periodization models. The figure below shows the compatibility of different motor abilities based on the dominant motor ability trained during a block - proposed by Vladmir Issurin. 

Defining Characteristics Of A block Periodization Model:

• The use of concentrated blocks of training loads

• Deep emphasis on cumulative and residual training effects

Looking at Some Resesarch

Elite endurance athletes spend the majority of their training time utilizing low-intensity training, with small bouts of high-intensity training to peak for a competition. However, the specific organiziation of these 2 training zones and methods are still unclear. Research by García-Pallarés et al (2010) found that a BP model improved performance more than a TP model in elite level kayakers despite the BP program being 10 weeks shorter. Taking a look at the details of the study design, it should be noted that the BP program included a higher percentage of high-intensity training, therefore making it hard to conclude whether the benefits came from superior distribution of the training load, or the increased concentration of high-intensity training. When comparing different periodization models and different distribution of training, intensity and volume must be equated and accounted for.

In another study, Rønnestad et al (2012) looked at the effects of TP and BP on cycling performance in well-trained cyclist. The intervention lasted 4 weeks, while the volume and intensity of training were similarly matched between the TP and BP group. The TP group performed 2 high-intensity training sessions interspersed by high-volume, low-intensity aerobic training every week. The BP group performed a full week of high-intensity training consisting of 5 training sessions, followed by 1 high-intensity training session interspersed with low-intensity aerobic training for the subsequent 3 weeks. The results of this study showed the BP group improved their VO2max values, peak power output and power output at 2mmol/L blood lactate, while no changes occurred in the TP-based group.

Unlike the García-Pallarés et al (2010) study, the 2 groups in this study performed an identical number of high-intensity sessions, therefore the performance increase was most likely due to superior organization of training and not from an increased concentration of high-intensity sessions. Aside from these improvements however, lactate threshold and cycling economy remained unchanged in both groups, as expected by the researches due to the brief nature of the 4-week intervention. From this study, we see that a high concentration of training load allowed for a stronger training stimulus needed to improve performance variables in elite athletes. Whether that increase in VO2max has an influence on actual endurance race performance, is another question.

While not all programs will look exactly the same as the models above, many periodized programs share many of the characteristics of at least one of the models above. You'd even be surprised that some training programs deemed as "non-periodized" are infact, periodized to a degree.

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Periodized vs. Non-periodized programs

A large majority of the research literature state that periodized training programs are effective across many measures of strength, power and motor performance for both men and women of varying training age and levels compared to non-periodized programs (Citations #1, #2). This should not come as a surprise as using kinesiology and sport science-based training methods allows coaches to view training adaptations in a more predictable course, and therefore they are able to adjust the subsequent training cycle to consolidate weaknesses or errors from the previous cycle. This is the overarching theme in sports planning and exercise performance. 

In cases where periodized training showed no benefits compared to non-periodized training, often, the subjects had a low level of initial fitness and/or the length of the intervention was not long enough. An example of this is a study on the effects of volume and intensity periodization on strength in novice trainees. When a "non-periodized" program was volume matched with a traditional and non-traditional periodization model, strength gains on the squat and bench press were similar between groups. Baker et al (1994) concluded that over short training cycles, non-periodized strength training programs result in the same gains a periodized programs. 

So what's the problem with short programs or study lengths?

Periodization models develop physical attributes in sequences and adaptations to training take time. Too short of an intervention does not allow this sequential development to happen. Future training cycles should be built upon using previous ones. It seems the benefits from a periodized program are accentuated when it is used in a longer time frame. When Stone et al (1999) analyzed 15 periodization studies, it was found that 13 studies showed improved results from a periodized program over a non-periodized program.

Rethink the term "non-periodized"

All programs, are infact, periodized to a certain degree. By now, you should know periodization simply means the structuring of training cycles. If there is no structure, there is no program. While some people may consider this semantics, it really isn't. A training program that offers random variations in training load and training variables is still a periodized program (a poorly periodized one). It can be even argued that variation and novelty itself is the key to performance increases, rather than strategically planning. 

Although some coaches might claim certain models of periodization are the "best" or are superior compared to other models, it is foolish to think that a one set of rules or a rigid system can accomodate the performance demands of athletes from different ages, sports and environmental constraints. 

Next time, we'll take a look at the application of these models and dive into why they're called "models" and not programs. We will also discuss the problems and limitations of periodization and what to do moving forwards.

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Better Long Term Athletic Development In Powerlifting

If you're going to powerlift, treat it like a sport. You need to be fit enough to play a sport, powerlifiting is no different. However...

Powerlifting is unique in that it revolves around performing lifts that would be otherwise used as a form of physical preparation in other sports. The squat, bench press and deadlift are all lifts that are commonly used in sports like football and hockey to increase upper body and lower body strength. As a powerlifter though, your success depends on  your strength on these big 3 exercises.

Training Variation 

Ask yourself: Are you in a position to practice the powerlifts with a high frequency? Or can you perform other exercises and round out your athletic abilities while still achieving similar progress?

Just like how athletes must be fit and strong enough to play their sport, powerlifters must be fit and mobile enough to perform the powerlifts. Many times, I see beginner powerlifters neglect all forms of general physical preparation - cardio, intervals, core work, improving overall movement quality, etc. Only until the novices have run Sheiko or Smolov, do they realize they're not cut out for highly-specific work just yet.

While I'm aware that trainees must practice the powerlifts frequently to become a better powerlifter, I'm a big believer in cross-training and including training variation when needed. The skill requirements for raw powerlifting are relatively low, compared to other strength sports such as Strongman events or Olympic weightlifting. Paired with the fact that there are many exercises that can mimic the powerlifting movement patterns, training variation can be very useful.

My clients who have had a history of playing multiple sports or clients who perform a wider variety of training (cardio, unilateral training, core training) in the off-season have been able to become more resilient to injuries, as well as be more successful when it comes to physical performance and mental health on the powerlifting platform.

Mental health and training monotony are big concerns in powerlifting as doing the same exercise over and over again can mentally bog down a trainee. If training isn't fun, why train?

In the last couple of months, I've seen powerlifters wanting to branch out and try different training modalities like Olympic weightlifting and calisthenics, its a great thing to see. Athletes almost always gain some perspective and learn a few things to apply to their own powerlifting training.

Offering some solutions

For novices and intermediate lifters: I urge you to do your fair share of general physical preparation. This means picking exercises that widen your athletic base, while keeping a degree of specificity as you want your physical attributes to transfer over to the sport of powerlifting.

These are my favorite exercises to include for overall athleticism (in no particular order):

• Occasional long-slow steady state cardio workouts - FOR RECOVERY

• Anaerobic cardio intervals on the assault bike or row ergo machine (60-90 seconds hard, 60-90 seconds easy, alternate) - FOR GENERAL WORK CAPACITY AND HIGH EFFORT TOLERANCE

• Isometric core exercises to build core stability and strength, practice bracing and breathing techniques (RKC plank, pallof press variations) - FOR CORE STRENGTH AND STABILITY

• Unilateral training (split squats, 1 legged RDLs, alternating dumbbell presses, 1 arm presses, etc) - FOR SYMMETRICAL STRENGTH AND IMBALANCES

For more advanced powerlifters: you've probably addressed general physical preparation properly, that's how you've progressed to become an experienced, advanced lifter. Variation can still be included. Aside from the powerlifting-specific variations, exercises that mimic the movement patterns of the powerlifters can still be used:

Squats - Quad dominant squat pattern
Bench Press - Horizontal Push
Deadlift - Posterior chain hip hinge pattern

Possible variations to use as accessories, during deloads, or in place of the big 3 when training around injuries.

• Squats and deadlift alternatives (Front loaded squats, trap bar deadlift, prowler pushes, squat jumps, olympic lift variations)

• Bench Press alternatives (weighted pushups, neutral grip presses).

Occasionally including these into your program can reduce the chance of over-use injuries and can be used as alternative exercises to perform around nagging hip and shoulder injuries. Exercises like the neutral grip presses can relieve shoulder stress, while trap bar deadlifts can still provide a high-intensity stimulus without taxing the lower back to the same degree as competition-style deadlifts.

Know when to specialize

Pre-competition is the best time to reduce the amount of variation you're doing, and ramp up the intensity and specificity of lifts. During this stage, the frequency of the competition lifts increase and unnecessary stressors that have already contributed to our athletic base are removed. Things like cardio, isolation exercises and most "bodybuilding" accessories start to decrease in volume in preparation for the higher intensity squats, bench presses and deadlifts.

Understanding training residuals are particularly important when it comes to peaking for a meet. We know that high volume training is required for hypertrophy, however, when it comes to maintaining that muscle mass, lower volume works - as long as intensity and effort is kept high.

This means that as you spend more time with the intensities 85% and above, performing 5 reps or less, you'll still be able to maintain that muscle mass. As a result, it is not necessary to implement "hypertrophy" days in hopes of building muscle, especially if a hypertrophy-focused phase has already been performed in the preparatory period.

If you want to learn more about programming and periodization, read more here.

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Nutritional Periodization: Diet Periodization for Better Performance

When it comes to the discussion of improving performance and fitness, one can't forget about the role of a proper diet and how much our day to day nutrition affects how we feel and perform. I've been going into detail about training periodization in my last few articles, and periodization for nutrition is something I've been planning to bring up as well.

So what is nutritional periodization, or periodized nutrition? Simply, planning and structuring of a diet based on the goals and demands of a trainee or athlete. Since training variables like intensity, volume, competition schedule and practices change from season to season and one training cycle to the next, nutritional periodization must be used and adapted according to the demands of practice, training and competition.

Scientifically, we know nutrition has a large impact on training outcomes and adaptations. 

• Consistently working out, but still consistently eating too many calories? You're not going to lose weight.

• On a hypertrophy program but you're not consuming enough protein? You're not going to get big!

• Not drinking enough water? You'll become dehydrated and performance will suffer.

• Going low carb and constantly training with high intensity? You're not going to achieve the high intensity endurance you want.

• etc....

How exactly it affects all these training outcomes and their subtle nuances,are still not clear as research in this field is still relatively new.

There's a review article on this topic that just came out yesterday (Mar 22nd 2017), titled "Periodized Nutrition For Athletes" by Asker Jeukendrup, a respected nutrition-researcher and Professor from the Netherlands. In the article, Jeukendrup discusses the historical aspects of nutrition and diet as they relate to training and exercise, and also lays down the foundation on what periodized nutrition means and what it's role is. He reviews an impressive list of various nutritional methods such as training on low carbohydrates, high carbohydrate diets, ketogenic diets and also a few supplements.

Here is the list below:

Without trying to repeat too much of what Jeukendrup says in the review paper (I highly urge you to read it if you're serious about improving your knowledge on nutrition - again here is the LINK : OPEN ACCESS), I wanted to talk about a few of the methods, particularly the more popular ones related to mainstream nutrition and dieting.

Some of the methods listed above might be considered "fad diets" in some circles; there has been a lot of talk about fasted cardio, is which essentially training low - training fasted, and ketogenic diets lately. Specifically, how they don't work and how they're bullshit and no one should be on them. While they might be right in some circumstances, its always good to have a change of perspective and see in which scenarios these nutritional methods can be beneficial. It's all about context.

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fasted cardio (Train low - training fasted)

Fasted cardio, or performing a cardio-endurance activity in the morning without having breakfast, has been touted to help burn fat and help trainees lose weight by forcing your body to use more of your "stubborn" fat as energy during exercise. Unfortunately, consistently working out with an empty stomach can be a terrible choice.

For most trainees, fasted cardio will simply feel terrible and their workouts suffer, causing them to exercise less intensely and expend less calories than they would normally. Since we know that weight and fat loss is primarily driven by calorie balance, the form and method of cardio that allows us to consistently burn off a high amount of calories and can be sustainable for the trainee, is the best form of cardio. For a lot of people, this means a snack or light meal prior to a workout, and exercising at various different intensities to keep things fun and interesting.

Fasted cardio is popular amongst bodybuilders, and people still do lose weight performing fasted cardio, does this mean fasted cardio is useless at best?
For the fitness and weight loss demographic, yes. But remember, context matters. Fasted cardio can be a nutritional method for amateur and professional endurance athletes to improve their endurance.

The sleep low method is a good example of a fasted cardio method (sleep low method studies - study link #1 here, #2 here), where the objective is to eliminate carbohydrate intake prior to sleeping, and fasting up to your morning training session. Training in the absence of carbohydrate (almost) or with a low-carbohydrate availability in your muscles or your liver, can promote the expression of certain genes like AMPK to amplify the adaptations from endurance training, like increaesed mitochondria and oxidative enzymes. However, there's a caveat.

These adaptations are amplified only if training is done at the lower intensities, the aerobic zones in which fat is the primary fuel source.  The sleep low method does not work and can be detrimental if the morning fasted cardio session consists of prolonged moderate intensity exercise or high intensity intervals, as carbohydrate/glucose is a much more preferred source during harder efforts of cardio training. Sleeping low or performing fasted training sessions will greatly reduce the quality of your workouts and the progress you'll make. Since not all training sessions will be high-intensity in nature, training fasted or on low glycogen can actually be applicable in some scenarios.

Proponents of fasted cardio believes training while hungry will help improve mental toughness, this is particularly popular in combat sports. I believe there are other ways to improve mental toughness without reducing the effectiveness of your training sessions though.

Now we start to see the carryover and the synergy between training periodization and nutritional periodization.

Doing block periodization and you're in a very high-volume, low-intensity endurance block? It might be effective to try out low-carb methods for the training block. 

Peaking for a competition that requires high intensity intervals? Probably a smart idea to carb up.

Certain methods work for certain groups of people. Just because a diet works for you, doesn't mean it'll work for someone else, and just because a diet DOESN'T work for you, doesn't mean it won't be effective for someone else. 

Ketogenic diet

Picture taken from Precision Nutrition.

We just talked about low-carbing or fasting before workouts. How about going low carb for a few months? For life?. Enter the ketogenic diet.

By significantly reducing the amount of daily carbohydrate intake (<50g), we go into a state of ketosis, where our body utilizes fats and ketones as your primary fuel source. Sounds similar to the fasted cardio method, but this takes an athlete several weeks to become fat-adapted, therefore affecting exercise and body composition on the longer-term. Is it useful? Is it effective?

We can look at it from different angles:

Keto for someone looking to lose weight:

In this situation, we have to take into consideration their ability to sustain a diet with low-carbs. Many of the foods today world contain carbohydrates and it is often hard to skip meals with your friends and family. Consuming a bit too many carbs can bring you out of ketosis and make you feel worse. You don't want to be in no-man's land - where you're not consuming enough carbs to fuel your daily life and exercise, and where you're consuming too many carbs to be in a ketogenic-state.

Diet sustainability is a big factor, paired with the fact that trainees still have to be eating in a calorie deficit. Knowing what fat and protein sources to eat is also something that must be learned if a keto diet is to be sustained in a healthy manner. Many people can't effectively lose weight and keep that weight off with a ketogenic diet. The ones that can, great for them. Find what works for you in terms of weight loss. I recommend reading or buying "The Ketogenic Diet" by Lyle McDonald, he has written extensively on this topic and how to properly go on a ketogenic diet for fat loss, performance and body composition goals.
 

Keto for a competitive athlete:

Jeukendrup's review paper and numerous other studies state that a keto athlete has dramatically increased fat utiliziation ability and upregulated enzymes involved in fat oxidation. However, some of the same studies that showed there was no improved performance effects regardless of the fact fat oxidation potential was increased.

There are a lot of successful keto athletes though, it just depends on the type of sport. 

Like I alluded to earlier, exercises or sports that utilize lower heart rates and intensities will pair best with a low-carb method or approach. While fat isn't a quick source of energy like glucose and phosphocreatine is, it can provide a lot of energy, 9kcal/g. This is viable for sports that are low intensities in nature but require a lot of energy, such as ultra-marathons and other long endurance events. 

This is not to say a calorie-matched high carb diet won't be more beneficial. Ketogenic athletes have shown to have a reduced ability to utilize carbohydrates as the enzymes related to carb metabolism are compromised when going on prolonged periods of carb restriction. Not so great for many team sports or endurance events that require repeated short bursts of high-intensity. 

edit: A 2017 study looking at race walkers on a ketogenic diet showed reduced economy, impairing performance. <Study here>

Supplements and drugs

By far the most popular method to improve fitness and performance goals. Supplements are the first thing many people and athletes turn to as they are marketed to quickly improve performance, help build muscle and shred fat. 

There are a lot of ergogenic supplements that have been studied extensively (have to plug Examine.com here, best website for information and research regarded supplements) to be shown to have health and fitness benefits, protein supplements, creatine, Vitamin D3, beta-alanine, to name a few.

There are also many supplements that have been shown to underdeliver, and are ineffective. Some of which are used incorrectly, but most of which flat out don't work as claimed to.

Supplements and drugs can also reduce training adaptations and be detrimental to performance, like antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Everyone should always be skeptical when it comes to supplement, to due it's unregulated nature and often times skewed research results. Take everything with a grain of salt and remember to master the basics before considering taking a shelf full of pills and powders.

From my article on pyramids in fitness and nutrition.

Supplement usage should be considered on a case by case basis, with context in mind. 
 

Concluding thoughts

Fitness and performance is not 80% training, 20% nutrition, or whatever.

It is 100% training and 100% nutrition, they work synergistically and are co-dependent. Training outcomes depend on the fuel you're putting into your body as much as nutritional interventions and methods depend on the your training goal and demands. 

The better sport nutritionists understand training periodization, the better nutrition can be provided according to the demands of the athletes. The more well-versed strength & conditioning coaches are in nutrition, they better they can influence the performance and recvoery of the athletes.

Keep this in mind when evaluating and considering supplements and diets. Be on the look out for more interesting research papers on sports nutrition in the years to come!

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Periodization 202: Training Phases, Residual & Cumulative Training Effects

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This third part will discuss cumulative and residual training effects as well as the phases of training (off, pre, in-season).

~1800 words; 8-16 minute read

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Training variation recap

As discussed in Part 2 (201), training stimuli can be described to fit a general-to-specific paradigm, where specific qualities are movements, mental states and physical attributes that are seen in the sport or competition the athlete or trainee is preparing for; while general qualities are variations of sport-specific attributes that builds the base to allow specific qualities to flourish in the long-term. Along with this general-to-specific paradigm, some physical attributes and motor skills are thought to be better developed in a sequential manner; either from a general-to-specific or simple-to-complex paradigm. For example, muscle hypertrophy is thought to be better developed prior to maximizing strength and power potential while jump-landing mechanics are better learned before more complex plyometric drills.

The general-to-specific paradigm can be applied to various training and programming variables, from exercise selection, to intensity, volume and frequency. The amount of variation included into a training program differentiates one periodization model from another. Before we take a critical look at each periodization model, we have to understand training effects and the concept of training phases.

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Cumulative & residual training effects

If we run long miles, we build incredible endurance. If we resistance train in high volumes, we experience muscle hypertrophy. When we provide a training stressor, we adapt and experience a training effect. But how come we don't experience muscle hypertrophy right after a training session? How come it takes weeks of training in the 1-5 rep range to get strong?

Training effects can be categorized into: 

• Immediate and Acute effects (the immediate effects of training are: muscle fatigue, energy depletion, increased blood flow to working muscles, immediate changes on blood pressure and heart rate, etc)

• Chronic and Cumulative effects (increased endurance, muscle hypertrophy, increased strength and power, etc over the long term)

• Residual effects (to what extent training adaptations deteriorate after bouts of detraining or deloading)

For the purpose of this article, we'll be discussing cumulative and residual effects as it pertains to periodization and programming.

The cumulative training effect refers to the changes in "physiological capabilities and level of physical/technical abilities resulting from a long-lasting athletic preparation" (source). Vladimir Issurin, an expert and innovator of Block Periodization, notes that there are functional limits to our body's physiological systems, some of which are more trainable than others. Changes in aerobic characteristics from endurance training such as mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle capillarization are more pronounced compared to anaerobic characteristics such as hydrogen ion buffering. 

In contrast, residual training effects refer to how long these adaptations are maintained after an acute withdrawal of training volume load or absolute cessation of training. The table below shows the residual training effects of different physical adaptations: 

The degree of detraining is dependent on several factors.

First, the duration of training before cessation. Residual training effects usually follow an analogy made by Vladmimir Zatsiorsky (author of The Science and Practice Of Strength Training) and Dr. William Kraeme: "soon ripe, soon rotten". This suggest that physical attributes that have been developed for a longer time, can be maintained for longer before there is a decrease in performance following a deload or periods of no training. In a similar view, Nick Winkleman and Issurin note that adaptations that result from a structural change, such as cardiac remodelling, muscle capillizaration and muscle hypertrophy last longer after detraining, compared to adaptations that occur on the enzymatic level such as anaerobic performance,  hydrogen ion buffering and phosphocreatine storage.  A great example of this in the strength training realm and one that many of you can relate to is the fact that many lifters and trainees are able to maintain their muscle mass even with prolonged periods of low volume, high-intensity training. Muscle mass loss is a fear many bodybuilders and fitness enthusiasts have. But if you've spent some quality time building that muscle and protein intake during periods of deload are high, chances are, it won't waste away as quickly or as easy as you think. 

Secondly, the training age and experience of an athlete/trainee also plays a factor in training residuals. Older and more advanced level athletes tend to experience longer residuals because of their higher accumulated training time, in line with the "soon ripe, soon rotten" analogy.

Lastly, the intensity used during retraining or detraining loads plays a role in mediating training residuals as well. The use of moderate to high-intensity training  slows down the rate of detraining, however, volume must be controlled in order to avoid disrupting the recovery process. Residual training effects are of extreme importance especially when using non-traditional periodization methods like block periodization or when managing the training loads for sports team athletes during the in-season or competition-period. Residual training effects also give way to the method of tapering, where volume is decreased to reduce fatigue and allow for the expression of fitness (Fitness-Fatigue Model). 

An extreme example of this is a study carried out by Pritchard et al. 2017, where resistance trained males completed two 4-week training programs followed by either 3.5 or 5.5 days of training cessation. Following this deload (in the form of no training, NOT lowered volume), peak force in the bench press and mid-thigh pull increased above baseline.

Infographic Designed by @YLMSportScience

I will cover the concept of tapering and include some practical methods/recommendations in future articles. 

Since not all physical abilities can be developed concurrently in a periodized program to the same degree, knowledge on the cumulative and residual effects enables coaches to prioritize certain performance measures, allowing them to make better strategic choices when planning a training program. 

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Phases of Training

One of the most agreed upon definitions of periodization is the division of training phases and periods within a training macrocycle. However, the names of these phases vary depending ont he sport, characteristics of the periodization model, and the philosophy of the coach.

Mesocycles/phases commonly follow the names: preparatory phase, competition phase and transitional/active-rest phase. The preparatory phase can further be divided into general preparatory phase (GPP) and specific/specialized preparatory phase (SPP).

PREPARATORY PHASE/OFF-SEASON

In GPP, the training variables are more general and varied in nature, stimulating a wide variety of physical attributes while during the SPP, variables and movements are more sport-specific, aiming to further prepare the athlete for competition.

GPP and SPP can be further broken down into extensive and intensive phases, describing the average intensities of that particular phase. An extensive phase will primarily consist of low-intensity, high volume training, using 50-70% of 1RM during resistance training (muscle endurance and hypertrophy) and working in Zones 2-3 in endurance training (aerobic). While an intensive phase will include a larger amount of medium to high-intensity training using training loads above 75-80% of 1RM and high intensity interval training for conditioning.

The preparatory phase is often called the off-season in seasonal, team-based sports like hockey, soccer/futbol, rugby, etc. This off-season or preparatory phase is where the most aggressive and creative periodization strategies occur to induce the most improvements in performance variables before a competition date or competitive season. Any weaknessess identified from previous training cycles or competitive matches is best addressed here, and any strengths should be further improved.

TRANSITIONAL-1 PHASE/PRE-COMPETITION/PRE-SEASON

After a preparatory training phase and prior to a competition date or competitive season, the volume load of training starts to decrease. This decrease is meant to achieve 2 things:

• Reduce training fatigue so physical and mental attributes are peaked for the upcoming competition/season

• Make time and room to accomodate the upcoming competition schedule, travelling schedule, media obligations and hone in technical sport-specific skills

This phase is called the transitional-1 stage, or the pre-competition phase or pre-season phase. Because of the length of many sports' in-season (lasting anywhere from 4-7 months depending on playoff eligibility), team-based sports should avoid any aggressive tapering methods heading into the competition season, and a more strategically planned maintanence program should be prescribed. This differs from climatic sports like many sports in the Olympics or combat sports like MMA and boxing where the athletes are preparing for a one-day/one-night competition. In those cases, aggressive tapers are necessary as there is less of need to maintain physical attributes post-competition.

COMPETITION PHASE/IN-SEASON

The competition phase, also known as in-season for team-based sports, is dedicated to maintaining specific performance variables such as strength and anaerobic conditioning in order to attenuate any detraining effects an athlete or team may experience. Knowledge of residual effects really plays a big role here. A coach needs to know how many hypertrophy-based, strength-based, power-based and conditioning-based training sessions are needed in order to maintain an acceptable level of fitness when their athletes are busy competing in matches, games and tournaments. A coach must also take into account what physical attributes are already being trained just by competing and playing in games. This may differ from position to position depending on the sport. A goalie in soccer will not utilize the same energy systems as a forward, a post will not have the same energy expenditure as a point guard in basketball. The most time and energy-efficient method of maintaining physical attributes must be performed when athletes have a full competition schedule.

TRANSITIONAL-2 PHASE/ACTIVE REST PERIOD

The transitional-2 or active-rest phase of a yearly training plan is dedicated to complete restoration of the team and athletes, both from a physical and mental standpoint. It is common for athletes to engage in physical activity or exercises that do not relate to their respective sports. However, exercises should be low-impact in nature and should not impede or jeopardize the recovery process if high performance is the goal. The main goal of the transitional-2, active-rest period is to withdraw physical and mental stress and pressure that accumulated from hard training and competition, in order to avoid overtraining and mental burnout.

Rinse & Repeat

When the athletes have undergone adequate rest, they are now ready to re-enter the preparatory training cycle or off-season. These phases or seasonal compartmentalization of training occur on the macrocyclic level, with each phase lasting several months (depending on the sport, of course). There are a few exceptions, like in combat sports, where competition dates differ year to year, usually controlled by fighter rankings, and business-driven promoter decisions. In these sports, rigid periodization models often fail in properly preparing the athletes for competition; therefore a more flexible approach to periodization and training programming must be used. In the next article of this series, we'll dive into specific periodization models and their defining characteristics.

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

Periodization 201: Training variation

Gold-medalist Hammer-thrower Krisztián Pars.

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This second part will cover the concepts of training variation and sequential development of physical attributes.

~1800 words; 8-16 minute read

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Physiological Basis Recap

In the first part of the series, we discussed the 3 paradigms used in training periodization: General adaptation syndrome by Hans Selye, Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Model, and the Fitness-Fatigue Model.

Taken from BretConteras.com Example of the SFRA (or SRA) curve in the context of muscle hypertrophy.

To recap, training volume and intensity (stimulus) has to be great enough in order to disrupt homeostasis in an athlete. Through adequate recovery, the athlete will adapt to the training, growing fitter and stronger than pre-training levels. As an athlete progresses, they begin to experience diminishing returns. A training load that once resulted in performance increases, will no longer stimulate the same degree of adaptation. To further improve performance, the stimulus has to gradually increase, in the form of higher volumes, or higher intensities (among other variables); this is the principle of progressive overload. However, some physical qualities can only be progressively overloaded to a certain degree before it is impractical to perform or may be impossible to recover from. When do we stop loading the bar with more weight? When do we stop running more miles? When do we switch exercises?

This next part will cover the concepts of training variation, and the sequential development of physical/motor abilities, 2 key concepts that training periodization is based on.

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Training Variation - The Need For Varied Stimuli

We always hear trainers and coaches say: "beginners can literally do anything and they will get better". Why is this?

In young athletes or athletes with a low training age, training adaptations can be achieved with relatively small amounts of volume load and variation. A wide variety of physical attributes like strength, endurance and coordination can all be trained simultaneously with limited interference because the functional limits of those systems have not been met (low start point). 

At the intermediate and especially the elite level, there is a need for more strategic planning of training stimuli in order to achieve the gains we want to see. High-intensity training required to induce anaerobic adaptations and other top-end adaptations such as speed and rate of force development in advanced-level athletes can only be performed for a certain amount of time before overtraining symptoms begin to appear. A study looking at training intensity and volume in elite endurance athletes found that adding extra sprint or high-intensity days to already-well-trained athletes resulted in little to no improvement in performance variables. This is does not mean high-intensity training doesn't work. This means extra intensification of already-intense training programs yields no improvements, the recovery costs outweigh the benefits. More is not always better. These elite endurance athletes actually performed better when varying their training stimulus by performing low to medium intensity work while strategically performing high-intensity training when and where it counts.

Training monotony, or lack of variation, can lead to increased risk of overtraining, higher risk of injury as well as poor performance. Including the right amount variation in a training program can result in better performance measures, less risk of overuse injuries and a healthier mental state for athletes and trainees. Why do I say "the right amount of variation"? Because if a training program includes too much variations, energy and time is spent on too many different physical attributes and skills, watering down the progress and  improvements that could be made on the more crucial components of performance. If there is too little variation, athletes will experience the detrimental affects of training monotony. 

This is the same reason why powerlifters don't lift exclusively lift in the 1-3 rep range, and why sprinters don't exclusively run 100m every practice. There are benefits to varying your training stimulus - manipulating variables like exercise selection, intensity, volume, movement patterns, etc. In layman's terms: We can't do the same thing all year-round. So what do we do when we're not practicing the competitive movements? How much variation should a training program?

This all depends on the level of athlete, type of athlete, training age, the sport itself, amongst other factors. Different periodization models have their own way of undulating variation, but they all share a common trait: physical attributes and performance measures are developed in a general to specific fashion.

The general - specific continuum

Training stimuli can be categorized into general and specific. Specific qualities are movements, mental states and physical attributes that are seen in the sport the athlete is preparing for, while general qualities are defined as variation of sport-specific attributes that build the base that allows specific qualities to flourish in the long term. Diving further into the details, general and specific qualities can also be divided into: general preparatory exercises (GPE), specific preparatory exercises (SPE), specific developmental exercises (SDE) and competitive exercises (CE). The graphic below outlines the definitions of each classification of exercises and how they play a role in training. It was created by the famous sport scientist Dr. Bondarchuk and is still used as a form of exercise classification in many elite sports today.

Dr. Anatoliy Bondarchuk's Classification of Exercises

Exercise Classification Examples

Using the Bondarchuk exercise classification system, let's create a list of exercises ranging from general to specific for:

1. A Competitive Powerlifter looking to improve their COMPETITION SQUAT; and

2. An MMA Fighter preparing for a fight.

1. POWERLIFTER - COMPETITION SQUAT

Prowler Push - Example of a SPE for a Powerlifter.

General Preparatory Exercise (GPE) - Endurance cycling (or any endurance modality)
Cycling does not imitate the competitive movement (squat), however is used as an all-purpose exercise to develop lower body endurance and promotes recovery.

Specific Preparatory Exercise (SPE) - Prowler Push
The prowler push does not imitate the squat, but uses the same muscle groups (quadriceps, glutes, core) as the squat and can be used to build general work capacity and lower body strength.

Specific Development Exercises (SDE) - Pause Squats For 3-6 reps
The pause squat mimicks the competition squat position but puts more emphasis on the bottom position of the squat. This exercise is specific but is still not considered the competitive movement itself.

Competitive Movement (CE) - Competition Squat for 1-3 reps
The competition squat is exactly what you should be training to directly improve your powerlifting squat performance. The intensity is high enough to mimick the demands of a powerlifting meet 90-100% of 1RM and the movement type and bar position is exactly what is seen in a competition.

2. MMA ATHLETE - FIGHT PREPARATION

GSP performing a barbell snatch - an exercise that can fall under SPE.

General Preparatory Exercise (GPE) - Road work/Running (or any endurance modality)
Running does not imitate the competition movements (striking/grappling/movement) however, is a great tool to build base endurance. An athlete can also use a ergo rower or bike to further promote recovery by avoiding the eccentric actions and muscle damage that comes from TOO much running.

Specific Preparatory Exercise (SPE) - Plyometric Drills (for striking) & Zercher Squats (for grappling)
Plyometric drills like depth jumps or continuous medicine ball slams/throws increase rate of force development/power as well as increases core stiffness and elastic energy transfer needed to improve striking power. While strength exercises like Zercher squats improves maximal lower body and core strength to increase grappling-specific strength.

Specific Developmental Exercises (SDE) - Heavy bag work/Isolated Striking Sparing & Grappling Dummy/BJJ Rolling
These exercises consist of pieces seen in the competitive setting (MMA fight) but developed in isolation. Striking classes or grappling sessions are where fighters hone in their skills in each martial arts discipline.

Competitive Exercise (CE) - Live Full Contact MMA Sparring (5 minute rounds)
Live full contact sparring is the closest a fighter can get to imitating the competitive event itself. Here, a fighter pieces each martial arts discipline together to make it flow and to practice any fight strategies that will be employed on fight night.

As you can see, even movements that don't resemble the competition event can be included into a training program and provide performance benefits. The Bondarchuk exercise classification system is an example of the general to specific continuum paradigm as it relates to exercise selection. The same paradigm can be applied to:

• Intensity (For an Olympic lifter, sets of 10 reps @ 65% of 1RM is considered "general" while sets of 1-2 reps @ 90-100% of 1RM is considered "specific"

• Volume (For a Triathlete, 1km interval sprints is considered "general" while a 20km long-distance run can be considered more "specific")

• Rest Intervals (For a Bodybuilder, 5 min rests can be useful for improving strength and is considered "general", while 2 min rest times is better for maintaining a pump and increase metabolic stress - considered "specific").

• etc...

Overly-specific

In a NSCA seminar on periodization, coach Nick Winkleman argued that there is an uprising of overly-specific, "functional" training methods where some coaches believe that only exercises that resembles sport-specific movements will increase improvement. An example of this is the infamous ladder drills that field-based athletes love to perform.

Some coaches mistakenly believe that doing copious amounts of agility ladder drills will improve the in-game footwork of their athletes. These predetermined agility drills create unrealistic footwork that often have a poor transfer over to the sport itself. While they should not be completely avoided, these agility drills must be carefully prescribed.

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Sequential development of physical attributes

In line to the general-to-specific paradigm, the concept of periodization is also based on the fact that various physical attributes are better developed in a sequential manner. Aerobic characteristics are thought to be better developed before anaerobic ones in endurance training, while muscle hypertrophy is thought to be developed prior to strength and power acquisition. 

Let's use the concept of sequential development and the general-to-specific paradigm for improving sprint performance in an Olympic sprinter:

A front squat or hip thrust can be used as a general movement to develop maximal strength, which will set the base and carry over to more specialized movements like a hang clean or trap bar jump to develop explosive strength. This explosive strength can then be used to develop more sport-specific movements such as assisted or resisted-sprint acceleration drills. This sequential development of exercise selection is suggested to be more beneficial than using acceleration drills alone, or solely using front squats or hip thrusts to improve sprint performance. Again, by performing a variation of strategically-picked general developmental exercises, we widen the base of the athlete to allow more specific qualities to flourish in the long term or on competition date.

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Concluding thoughts on variation and sequential development

The time or phases spent developing each attribute in the sequential hierarchy or the amount of variation included in a training plan is what differentiates one periodization model from another. How much time should be be spent on building muscle mass if maximal power output is the goal? Should a powerlifter train the squat, bench, deadlift all the time with a high frequency (ex: Sheiko) or should they use a wide variety of accessories to target weak muscles or weak points (ex: Westside Method). Training periodization and planning has a lot of grey areas; these are ongoing debates sports scientists and coaches have on a daily basis.Read Part 101: IntroductionRead Part 201: Training Variation Read Part 202: Training Effect & PhasesRead Part 301: Review of Periodization ModelsRead Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Periodization 101

Periodization, the systematic planning of exercise and athletic training. It is one of the cornerstones of high level sports and physical performance and without it, training has no context and no direction.

This series will cover the big picture as well as dive into the small nuances of what makes periodization such an important topic to learn for any aspiring strength & conditioning coach or high performance trainer. 

This first part will talk about the history of periodization and how the concept came to practice, as well as the true definition of periodization and the physiological basis behind physical training and planning. 

~1900 words ; 10-15 minute read

Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Introduction To Periodization

Many articles posted online about training periodization revolve around how to set up your training to "bust through plateaus" and hit your "biggest PRs ever". While periodization certainly does help you in doing both, many authors neglect to write about the "whys" and are inconsistent when using training terminologies. What's the difference between linear and daily undulating (DUP)? What's block training? I thought blocks were called phases? How do I linearly progress man? A lot of terms get thrown around without proper context, and unless you have some background in exercise science or an in-depth understanding of exercise physiology, it can get confusing. To play devil's advocate though, there are many concepts and training methods that share different names; usually due to that fact that different researchers and difference coaches around the world use them and have made them popular in their own training niche or sport.

Quick example: tempo training in the world of running (tempo running) consists of a more fast-paced run usually right at an athlete's lactate-threshold. However in cycling, tempo training is done below anywhere from 10-15 beats below an athlete's lactate-threshold. What seems like a small adjustment can be the difference between increased endurance, or poor recovery and overtraining. This may be a specific example, but I hope you get the idea.

Before we even get into the types of periodization and how to manipulate training variables, we must know WHY things are set up the way they are. Training terminology must be consistent and training modalities need to be contextualized. 

With all that said, let's jump into it.

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The History Of Periodization

How did the concept of periodization come to fruition and why was it invented?

Sport training theories and methodologies have been developed throughout human history, dating back to the 2nd century AD, notably by Roman philosopher and physician Galen and ancient Greek scientist Philostratus. In order to achieve spectacular results and performances at the ancient Olympic games, these 2 gentlemen developed their own training theories which have laid down the foundation for contemporary training periodization.

Galen created the idea of building strength without speed, developing speed without strength, then using intense exercises to combine the 2 to create the most powerful athlete possible. Philostartus on the other hand, constructed the idea compartmentalizing training protocols:

"compulsory 10-month period of purposeful training followed by 1 month of centralized preparation... prior to the Olympic Games".

Sounds an awful lot like the off-season and in-season training camps of today, right?

Let's fast forward a few thousand years.

In the 20th century, the contributions from a factory supervisor named Frederick Winslow Taylor further paved the way for modern training management. As the founder of the "Principles of Scientific Management", Frederick believed there was a systematic way to organize and plan in order to achieve the best outcomes in the most efficient manner. The appeal for the scientific method came from several different driving forces: the fact that the explanatory power of the scientific method resonated with the society, and the ingrained human attraction for simplicity, rules and automatized solutions. What originally was a paradigm developed for the engineering and automobile industry, has given way to exercise and sports performance planning.

How do we achieve the best performance possible on any given date? How do we create a training system that works for a particular group of athletes? How do we improve performance given our current resources and limitations? 

These are the questions periodization attempts to answer for a variety of different sports, athletes and scenarios.

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Popularization of Periodization

"All World Records Shall Be Ours!" A Soviet poster from 1948.

The concept of training periodization was not developed on a large scale until the 1950's, where former USSR teachers, coaches and scientists called for separate training periods, general and specialized phases. These phases, encompassing the training of basic athletic abilities, cardiovascular fitness and strength, were applied in a sport performance as well as physical education setting. When numerous studies on exercise physiology and human biology were published to back these concepts, sport scientist Lev P. Matveyev compiled the massive amount of data. Matveyev is to this day, recognized as the founder of the traditional theory of periodization (commonly and wrongfully called linear periodization - more on this later).

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The definition of periodization

Although there have been several models of periodization developed since Matveyev's traditional model, it is widely agreed upon that the definition of periodization is the divison of training periods and the principle of cyclical training where programming variables such as intensity, volume, frequency, rest, and exercise selection among others, are strategically manipulated and varied in order to reduce the risk of injury and maximize sport performance for individual athletes or sports teams.

Periodization takes into consideration the level, training age and genetic predispositions of an athlete in order to avoid overtraining and allow them to peak for one or several competitions. In a periodized training plan, certain time-frames exists for the manipulation of programming variables, these time frames are termed macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle.

A macrocycle is considered the longest duration of the training cycle, usually several months in length or even a few years. For example, a quadrennial macrocycle describes a 4-year long program used to prepare an athlete or sport team for the Olympic games. A macrocycle is comprised of several mesocycles, which are a few months in length and can be defined as a prepatory, competition or transitional phase. Lastly, mesocycles are further divided into microcycles which deals with training on the weekly-basis.

Macrocycle (months to years)

Mesocycles (weeks to months)

Microcycles (training on the week to week basis)

Using this definition, many popular strength programs that you and I are familiar with (Stronglifts 5x5, Texas Method, Starting Strength, etc), ARE periodized. Periodization does not imply some fancy, advanced, over-the-top program meant for elite athletes... although it can be. Periodization simply means your training plan is divided and organized in a way that makes sense and is in line with the nature of human biology and exercise physiology. The difference between a periodized program for a beginner vs. an elite athlete lies in the number of variables that are controlled for and manipulated. A weight training enthusiast can see results with the simple manipulation of intensity and volume, whereas elite athletes will need more advanced manipulation of loading schemes, exercise selection and nutritional intake in order for them to achieve those incremental gains in performance.

Periodization can be as simple, or as complex as you need it to be. That's the beauty of it.

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Physiological Basis Behind Periodization

What is periodization based on? How do we determine what variables to manipulate and how to manipulate them to our advantage in terms of training adaptations?

The answer comes from the understanding human physiology and how we respond to stress. Here are 3 of the overarching principles and paradigms that make exercise and sports planning possible: General adaptation syndrome (GAS), Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation (SFRA) and Fitness-Fatigue Model (F-F)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a model of stress created by Hans Selye to describe and stereotype the physiological responses of the nervous and endocrine system to a stressor. GAS is categorized into 3 stages: alarm stage, resistance stage and the exhaustion stage. During the alarm stage, the body reacts to the stressor by releasing hormones in order to restore homeostasis. The resistance stage, which can also be referred to the adaptation stage, is where physiological defenses are strengthened in anticipation to future stressors. The exhauastion stage is reached when the stressor still persists and the body does not have sufficient resources to defend or repair itself.

Han Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) illustrated.

The GAS syndrome as shown by a mouse reaction to a cat.

In relation to exercise and sports training, a disruption in homeostasis (in the form of training stress) manifests itself in the form of muscle soreness, fatigue, and a temporary decrease in performance. If the stress is maintained without proper recovery, overtraining can occur. However, if an athlete recovers adequately after a period of stress, or if the stressor is temporarily withdrawn, performance can rebound and increase beyond training levels; this is often coined the term supercompensation and is another driving principle behind periodization.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation (SFRA)

GAS was originally created to describe a response to a general stressor, however has been critisized that it was not created specifically sports training. This resulted in a more refined concept, the SFRA model, to explain training stress and adaptations.

Taken from BretContreras.com. Example of the SFRA (or SRA) curve in the context of muscle hypertrophy. 

Although similar to the GAS model, the SFRA model concept states that training stress is dependent on many factors such as intensity and volume of training. The greater the intensity or volume of the training, the greater the stressor is, resulting in a higher amount of fatigue AND adaptation. Contrastingly, if the intensity or volume of training is insufficient, fatigue will not accumulate but training adaptations will not be made! As an athlete, you must introduce yourself to a progressively larger and larger training stimulus, not too small where you won't see any benefits from it, or not too large that you're unable to recovery from it.

In layman's terms: every time you perform a training session (stimulus), you start to build up fatigue in the form of muscle soreness and lowered energy levels. As you consume enough food and get enough sleep (recovery), you are able to recover from your workout and come back fitter and stronger than before (adaptation). In the strength training realm, these concepts are commonly described as "progressive overloads" where you're looking to increase the total amount weight lifted or total number of reps lifted every workout or every week, and "rest days" where you back off on the training stress in order to give your body time to recover. 

Fitness-Fatigue Model

The fitness-fatigue (F-F) model suggests that fitness and fatigue are inversely related, where strategies that maximize fitness and decrease fatigue will be the most optimal to improving sport performance. It is thought that when we introduce a training stressor, fitness adaptations and the accumulation of fatigue occur simultaneously. It is not until the stressor is withdrawn, where fatigue dissipates and fitness is increased. Unlike the previous 2 paradigms, the F-F model is able to differentiate between specific training stressors. An exercise that stresses the neuromuscular system (heavy deadlifts) may not neccessarily affect the aerobic energy system to the same degree as a 10km run would. A well-known example of the F-F model is the strategy of tapering; where training volume is dialed back in order to eliminate muscular fatigue and express maximal strength, power and endurance.

Note that all 3 of these paradigms are used simultaneously in modern day training periodization. Thanks to the access to technology we have today, the ability to monitor training variables and training stress has made these concepts more important and more effective. Even with that said, there are still people who believe periodization does not work any better than non-periodized programs or is a waste of time or practical to implement. Their beliefs holds some truths, however are still misguided at the end of the day. I will go into detail in later parts of this series. 

For now, soak in the information and take a look at how your current training fits the concepts discussed. Thanks for reading!

5-Part Periodization Series Links:
Read Part 101: Introduction
Read Part 201: Training Variation
Read Part 202: Training Effect & Phases
Read Part 301: Review of Periodization Models
Read Part 401: The Complexities and Problems of Periodization Theory

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Why The Pyramid Works So Well In Fitness

We've all seen training and nutrition principles put into a form of a pyramid before (some examples below), but why a pyramid? Why not a pie chart or a flow chart? Let's discuss.

The pyramid works well in the fitness industry because it takes into account priorities, and base building. In an industry where the flashiest and most "advanced" training and dieting programs are being pushed down the throat of the consumers, educating beginner trainees on the importance of simplicity is crucial.

Priorities

Everything you do in your training and nutrition should be effective and time efficient. Using a pyramid really illustrates what aspects of your training and diet needs the most focus on, and which aspects will give you the most bang for you buck. 

Let's take the nutrition & fat loss pyramid for example: 90% of your bodyweight goals will come from just paying attention to calorie intake. Eating less calories than you burn will result in weight loss. However if you're concerned with keeping the most muscle mass as you can for aesthetic, or performance reasons, this is where we move up the pyramid and take into account macro-nutrient distribution (in this case, adequate protein intake), making sure you're hitting your micro-nutrient and fibre needs for good health.

Too many people, too often, major in the minors. Instead of spending the time to count calories, they'll go to the nearest GNC store to find a fat burning supplement that just simply won't work. Again, using pyramids helps you pin point which areas of training or diet to focus on, and which areas are details.

Building a base

The bigger base you build, the higher potential peak you can have. This holds true for performance training and performance nutrition. Athletes and trainees are often impatient and believe they'll progress faster than everyone else. They'll use professional athletes as examples of why to follow the most-intense training program, why they should specialize in their sport early on into their athletic career, and why they should use the most advanced training methods. 

They're wrong.

Professionals and high-performers often do NOT specialize early (they play multiple sports growing up and dabble in many different types of training methodologies) and they MASTER THE FUNDAMENTALS!

Using the strength training pyramid for example: trainees make the mistake of spending their energy on intensity, volume and frequency before they develop proper movement quality. Improving technique and movement quality will make everything upstream more effective.

Good movement quality will open you up to a wider array of exercise selections, create consistency and accuracy in your periodized program, as well as set you up for proper strength progressions and ultimately, more advanced training methods.

started from the bottom now we're here

Don't forget about the basics, master the fundamentals and you'll achieve more results than you originally expected, I promise. There's nothing wrong with learning about advanced training or dieting methods, however, if you're a beginner or intermediate trainee, keep things simple and practical.

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Do I Eat Less Or Exercise More For Fat Loss?

Picture taken from Huffingtonpost.com

Do you reach your fat loss goals by eating less or should you stick with your current diet and increase energy expenditure by exercising more? Let's go over each strategy and see what works best. 

Eating Less While Paying Less Attention to Exercise

Weight loss occurs when you consistently consume less calories than you burn; I'm sure everyone is aware of that by now. By tracking your calories and overhauling your diet with healthy whole foods, plenty of protein, fibre and vitamins, you will definitely lose weight. Some people are under the misconception that decreasing calories means eating less food; these are the same people that have problems managing their hunger levels - possible causing them to overeat or not adhere to their diet properly. The best way to control hunger levels while staying in a calorie deficit is to consume high volume foods, increase their protein intake and increase their meal frequency.

Examples of high volume foods include big salads, or substituting vegetables for your rice or pasta dish. Increasing protein intake can help with satiety and is achieved by consuming lean protein sources like lean beef, some seafoods, and vegetarian sources like tofu. A higher meal frequency, while shown not to have any beneficial effects on weight loss compared to a calorie-equated low meal frequency diet, can help people adhere to their diets more effectively and decrease the likelihood of overeating. Small to moderate size meals throughout the day can be better for diet adherence than eating 2-3 big meals a day.

What's wrong with this approach?

While you are certainly going to experience some weight and fat loss by eating less calories and improving your diet, your fat loss will plateau without paying extra attention to exercise. In order to consistently lose fat, your calories will have to decrease more and more. This is not only difficult in terms of managing hunger levels, but can be out right unhealthy - I've heard stories of females eating 1000 calorie diets attempting to lose weight. This is NOT okay and people will run the risk of nutrient deficiencies and low energy levels. 

EXERCISE MORE WITHOUT CHANGING YOUR DIET

Exercise will do wonders for your body. Increased energy/calorie expenditure, improved nutrient partitioning (positively change the way your body deals with the nutrients and calories coming into your body), improved muscular and cardiovascular health, alleviate pain and prevent injuries. I recommend a combination of resistance training and cardio exercises for everyone, the most important thing is to make exercise sustainable and enjoyable. 

My general recommendations for resistance exercise (lifting) would be a minimum 2 times a week. Cardio training can be done everyday (low intensity) or 2-3 times a week if performing challenging interval training. Doing that alone will increase your weekly calorie expenditure... as long as you're consistent!

What's wrong with this approach?

If you're a beginner trainee and you currently eat diet high in calories, its unlikely you'll be able to work off a bad diet. A beginner simply doesn't have the work or recovery capacity to exercise enough to out work a bad diet. Increasing muscle mass improves your fat and calorie burning abilities. However, new trainees do not experience significant muscle hypertrophy until 5-8 weeks into a consistent weight training program.

What should you do then? The answer lies in between the 2 strategies.

the perfect fitness and diet lifestyle

The perfect recipe for fat loss utilizes both strategies mentioned above. You should know now that fat loss can be achieved through either #1: increasing calorie expenditure, or #2: decreasing calorie consumption. Trying to take extreme measures on any 1 method will often cause you to fall short of your goals. It's very difficult to adhere to a hard exercise program when you're new to resistance or cardio training, and it's very hard to make your diet sustainable if it includes very low calories or foods you don't like eating.

The solution

Instead of taking extreme measures, take small steps to improve your exercise habits, diet and learn the concept of NEAT (Non-exercise activity thermogenesis). 

NEAT is one of the most overlooked aspects of calorie expenditure and fat loss. NEAT represents all the physical activity throughout your day that isn't considered exercise. How much you walk a day, how many chores you do, how active your job is, how long you spend your day sitting and being sedentary, all of these are included in your NEAT.

"I eat pretty well, I exercise 3 times a week, how come I'm still not reaching my fat loss goals?" - Bob

Well I'm sorry to hear that Bob, but it might be because you sit on your ass all day when you're not exercising. Bob is most likely not training hard enough for exercise to have any significant effects on his calorie expenditure. Paired with that fact that he remains sedentary when not at the gym, his metabolism remains relatively slow.

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This is an example of a breakdown of the daily calorie expenditure of a person that exercises moderately but stays relatively active in their daily life.

• Basal Metabolic Rate represents the calories burned just by staying alive (based on bodyweight, height, muscle mass, anthropometric features)
• NEAT represents the amount of activity level in a day not related to dedicated exercise
• Exercise represents a dedicated time to which you hit the gym/go for a run/follow your training program
• TE of Food represents the thermic effect of food - the amount of energy spent digesting the food you consume

As a beginner, there is only so much exercise you can do before it becomes unsustainable or you can recover from without being injured or burnt out. Seeing how the thermic effect of food plays a very small part in your metabolism and basal metabolic rate is dependent on genetic and body measurement factors, increasing NEAT would be the next best option.

As an intermediate/advanced trainee, your work capacity develops and the calories that can be burned through exercise increases. NEAT eventually turns into moderate-high intensity exercise. Many of these trainees can "outwork a bad diet", however, it still takes discipline and proper training/dieting strategies to become the leanest, strongest and fittest version of yourself.

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There are plenty of ways to increase your NEAT, and consequently, energy expenditure throughout the day. Here are a few:

• Every hour or so of sitting, balance that out with 5-10 minutes of stretching and moving around
• Create a daily step count goal and hit it every day
• Walk to the grocery store instead of driving there 
• Go on the stationary bike or treadmill while watching Netflix or studying for your upcoming exam
• Go for walk when listening to music or audiobooks
• Dance in the shower (careful there)

Achieving your fat loss goals and improving your fitness lifestyle does not occur while taking extreme measures, rather, working on all parts of the equation - diet, exercise, NEAT and building sustainable habits. 

Exercise more, improve your diet, move more.

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Thanks for reading! Here a few articles to get you started with your fitness and diet goals:

What Type Of Dieter Are You?

Surprising Reasons You're Not Reaching Your Fitness Goals (Habit Building Article)

How Much Protein Do You Really Need?

How To Pack On Muscle - Diet Tips For The Hardgainer

Need extra help? Want to jump start your training or diet? Feel free to contact me for a free consultation!